Embedded Files
Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
Gut Brain Basics
Gut Brain Basics
Gut-Brain Axis Resources. (n.d.). Novus Biologicals. https://www.novusbio.com/research-areas/microbiology/gut-brain-axis
⬇️ Outline of the anatomy, molecules, neurons, cells, and micribiota of the gut brain axis.
Sender, R., Fuchs, S., & Milo, R. (2016). Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS Biology, 14(8), e1002533. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533
Carabotti, M., Scirocco, A., Maselli, M. A., & Severi, C. (2015, June 1). The gut-brain axis: interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4367209/
Rege, S., Graham, J., Rege, S., & Graham, J. (2024, November 13). The simplified guide to the Gut-Brain Axis - how the gut talks to the brain. Psych Scene Hub. https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/the-simplified-guide-to-the-gut-brain-axis/
Miller, I. (2018). The gut–brain axis: historical reflections. Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease, 29(2), 1542921. https://doi.org/10.1080/16512235.2018.1542921
Lewandowska-Pietruszka, Z., Figlerowicz, M., & Mazur-Melewska, K. (2022). The history of the intestinal microbiota and the Gut-Brain axis. Pathogens, 11(12), 1540. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11121540
Gut Brain Axis (GBA). (n.d.). Physiopedia. https://www.physio-pedia.com/Gut_Brain_Axis_(GBA)
Wang, H., & Wang, Y. (2016). Gut microbiota-brain axis. Chinese Medical Journal, 129(19), 2373–2380. https://doi.org/10.4103/0366-6999.190667
Cryan, J. F., O’Riordan, K. J., Cowan, C. S. M., Sandhu, K. V., Bastiaanssen, T. F. S., Boehme, M., Codagnone, M. G., Cussotto, S., Fulling, C., Golubeva, A. V., Guzzetta, K. E., Jaggar, M., Long-Smith, C. M., Lyte, J. M., Martin, J. A., Molinero-Perez, A., Moloney, G., Morelli, E., Morillas, E., . . . Dinan, T. G. (2019). The Microbiota-Gut-Brain axis. Physiological Reviews, 99(4), 1877–2013. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00018.2018
The Vagus Nerve
The Vagus Nerve
Fülling, C., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2019). Gut microbe to brain signaling: What happens in vagus. . . Neuron, 101(6), 998–1002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2019.02.008
Stakenborg, N., Di Giovangiulio, M., Boeckxstaens, G., & Matteoli, G. (2013). THE VERSATILE ROLE OF THE VAGUS NERVE IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT. EMJ Gastroenterology, 106–114. https://www.emjreviews.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/The-Versatile-Role-of-the-Vagus-Nerve-in-the-Gastrointestinal-Tract-.pdf
Breit, S., Kupferberg, A., Rogler, G., & Hasler, G. (2018). Vagus nerve as modulator of the Brain–Gut axis in psychiatric and inflammatory disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 44. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00044
⬇️ Basic duties, anatomy, and associated disorders of vagus nerve.
Babic, T., & Browning, K. N. (2013). The role of vagal neurocircuits in the regulation of nausea and vomiting. European Journal of Pharmacology, 722, 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.08.047
Zhong, W., Shahbaz, O., Teskey, G., Beever, A., Kachour, N., Venketaraman, V., & Darmani, N. A. (2021). Mechanisms of nausea and vomiting: Current knowledge and recent advances in intracellular emetic signaling systems. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(11), 5797. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22115797
Xu, S., Zhou, G., Wu, B., & Liu, T. (2024). Molecular and circuit mechanisms regulating nausea and vomiting: recent advances and future perspectives. Neuropharmacology and Therapy, 1. https://doi.org/10.15212/npt-2024-0006
Gillis, R. A., Dezfuli, G., Bellusci, L., Vicini, S., & Sahibzada, N. (2021). Brainstem Neuronal Circuitries Controlling gastric tonic and phasic Contractions: a review. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 42(2), 333–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10571-021-01084-5
Page, A. J. (2021). Gastrointestinal vagal afferents and food intake: Relevance of circadian rhythms. Nutrients, 13(3), 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030844
Yu, C., Xu, Q., & Chang, R. (2020). Vagal sensory neurons and gut-brain signaling. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 62, 133–140.
Hwang, Y. K., & Oh, J. S. (2025). Interaction of the vagus nerve and serotonin in the Gut–Brain axis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(3), 1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26031160
⬇️ Serotonin, made in the gut from tryptophan, interacts with the vagus nerve, which carries the signal up to the brainstem. This is bidirectional: the dorsal motor vagal nucleus sends signals back down to the gut.
Kenny, B. J., & Bordoni, B. (2022, November 7). Neuroanatomy, cranial nerve 10 (Vagus nerve). StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537171/
Ma, L., Wang, H., & Hashimoto, K. (2024). The vagus nerve: An old but new player in brain–body communication. Brain Behavior and Immunity, 124, 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2024.11.023
Travagli, R. A., & Anselmi, L. (2016). Vagal neurocircuitry and its influence on gastric motility. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 13(7), 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2016.76
⬇️ Vagus relay from brain to stomach: Green ACh neurons cause contraction, while red NANC neurons cause relaxation.
Ritter, R. C., Campos, C. A., Nasse, J., & Peters, J. H. (2017). Vagal Afferent Signaling and the Integration of Direct and Indirect Controls of Food Intake. In Appetite and Food Intake: Central Control (2nd ed., pp. 229–258). https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315120171-11
Maniscalco, J. W., & Rinaman, L. (2018). Vagal interoceptive modulation of motivated behavior. Physiology, 33(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00036.2017
Prescott, S. L., & Liberles, S. D. (2022). Internal senses of the vagus nerve. Neuron, 110(4), 579–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2021.12.020
Berthoud, H., Münzberg, H., Morrison, C. D., & Neuhuber, W. L. (2025). Gut-brain communication: Functional anatomy of vagal afferents. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 93, 103058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2025.103058
Förster, C. Y., & Shityakov, S. (2026). A possible role for the vagus nerve in physical and mental health. Biomolecules, 16(1), 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom16010121
Onimus, O., Arrivet, F., Borgne, T. L., Perez, S., Castel, J., Ansoult, A., Bertrand, B., Mashhour, N., De Almeida, C., Bui, L., Vandecasteele, M., Luquet, S., Venance, L., Heck, N., Marti, F., & Gangarossa, G. (2026). The gut-brain vagal axis governs mesolimbic dopamine dynamics and reward events. Science Advances, 12(5), eadz0828. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adz0828
Xing, T., Ozkaya, K. S., Nassrallah, Z., & Travagli, R. A. (2025). The vagus connection: exploring the neurobiology of brain-gut communication. Journal of Neurophysiology, 135(1), 261–272. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00516.2024
López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2024). The vagus nerve and the Brain-Gut axis: Implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 36(4), 278–282. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.20240118
The Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
The Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
Spencer, N. J., & Hu, H. (2020). Enteric nervous system: sensory transduction, neural circuits and gastrointestinal motility. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 17(6), 338–351. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-020-0271-2
⬇️ Main mechanosensing neurons of the ENS. Dogiel type I are interneurons, while Dogiel type II are sensory neurons
Kuder, T., Klejbor, I., & Wróbel, G. (2025). The enteric nervous system in physiological and pathological conditions. Medical Studies, 41(2), 65–74. https://doi.org/10.5114/ms.2025.152424
Natale, G., Ryskalin, L., Morucci, G., Lazzeri, G., Frati, A., & Fornai, F. (2021). The baseline structure of the enteric nervous system and its role in Parkinson’s disease. Life, 11(8), 732. https://doi.org/10.3390/life11080732
⬇️ ENS circuits synapsing with the vagus nerve.
Geng, Z., Zhu, Y., Li, Q., Zhao, C., & Zhou, P. (2022). Enteric nervous system: the bridge between the gut microbiota and neurological disorders. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 14, 810483. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.810483
Rao, M., & Gershon, M. D. (2018). Enteric nervous system development: what could possibly go wrong? Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 19(9), 552–565. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-018-0041-0
Sun, N., Cao, L., Xia, W., Wang, J., & Wu, Q. (2025). Gut sensory neurons as regulators of neuro-immune-microbial interactions: from molecular mechanisms to precision therapy for IBD/IBS. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 22(1), 172. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-025-03500-9
Nezami, B. G., & Srinivasan, S. (2010). Enteric nervous system in the small intestine: Pathophysiology and clinical implications. Current Gastroenterology Reports, 12(5), 358–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11894-010-0129-9
Fung, C., & Vanden Berghe, P. (2020). Functional circuits and signal processing in the enteric nervous system. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 77(22), 4505–4522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-020-03543-6
⬇️ AMAZING overview of the different ENS neurons and how they interact.
Gallego D, Mañé N, Gil V, Martínez-Cutillas M, Jiménez M. Mechanisms responsible for neuromuscular relaxation in the gastrointestinal tract. Rev Esp Enferm Dig 2016;108(11):721-731.
Idrizaj, E., Traini, C., Vannucchi, M. G., & Baccari, M. C. (2021). Nitric oxide: From gastric motility to gastric dysmotility. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(18), 9990. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22189990
Aulí, M., Martínez, E., Gallego, D., Opazo, A., Espín, F., Martí‐Gallostra, M., Jiménez, M., & Clavé, P. (2008). Effects of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission on motor patterns of human sigmoid colon in vitro. British Journal of Pharmacology, 155(7), 1043–1055. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjp.2008.332
Fleming, M. A., Ehsan, L., Moore, S. R., & Levin, D. E. (2020). The enteric nervous system and its emerging role as a therapeutic target. Gastroenterology Research and Practice, 2020, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8024171
⬇️ MORE ENS CIRCUIT VISUALIZATION!
Suman, S. (2024). Enteric Nervous System Alterations in Inflammatory bowel Disease: Perspectives and implications. Gastrointestinal Disorders, 6(2), 368–379. https://doi.org/10.3390/gidisord6020025
The Molecules of Sensing
The Molecules of Sensing
Barton, J. R., Londregan, A. K., Alexander, T. D., Entezari, A. A., Covarrubias, M., & Waldman, S. A. (2023). Enteroendocrine cell regulation of the gut-brain axis. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 17, 1272955. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1272955
McCauley, H. A. (2019). Enteroendocrine regulation of nutrient absorption. Journal of Nutrition, 150(1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz191
Fung, C., Venneman, T., Holland, A. M., Martens, T., Alata, M. I., Hao, M. M., Alar, C., Obata, Y., Tack, J., Sifrim, A., Pachnis, V., Boesmans, W., & Vanden Berghe, P. (2025). Nutrients activate distinct patterns of small-intestinal enteric neurons. Nature, 644(8078), 1069–1077. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09228-z
Nozawa, K., Kawabata-Shoda, E., Doihara, H., Kojima, R., Okada, H., Mochizuki, S., Sano, Y., Inamura, K., Matsushime, H., Koizumi, T., Yokoyama, T., & Ito, H. (2009). TRPA1 regulates gastrointestinal motility through serotonin release from enterochromaffin cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(9), 3408–3413. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0805323106
Egan, J. M., & Margolskee, R. F. (2008). Taste cells of the gut and gastrointestinal chemosensation. Molecular Interventions, 8(2), 78–81. https://doi.org/10.1124/mi.8.2.5
Tadge, T., Pattewar, A., More, N., Babu, S. S., Velyutham, R., & Kapusetti, G. (2024). The role of Piezo1 and Piezo2 proteins in tissue engineering: A Comprehensive review. Engineered Regeneration, 5(2), 170–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engreg.2024.03.001
Serotonin
Serotonin
Mawe, G. M., & Hoffman, J. M. (2013). Serotonin signalling in the gut—functions, dysfunctions and therapeutic targets. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 10(8), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2013.105
Abubaker, S., Miri, S., & Hammami, R. (2026). Serotonin and the gut microbiome: Pathways, functions, and health implications. The Microbe, 10, 100668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microb.2026.100668
Linan-Rico, A., Ochoa-Cortes, F., Beyder, A., Soghomonyan, S., Zuleta-Alarcon, A., Coppola, V., & Christofi, F. L. (2016). Mechanosensory signaling in enterochromaffin cells and 5-HT release: Potential implications for gut inflammation. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10, 564. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00564
Alcaino, C., Guccio, N., Miedzybrodzka, E. L., Quale, J. R., Lu, T., Davison, A., Smith, C. A., Overington, E., Hernández, M. S., Tabbada, M., Hodge, M., Bakar, R. B., Kay, R., Shaaban, A., Imig, C., Reimann, F., & Gribble, F. M. (2025). Mechanisms of activation and serotonin release from human enterochromaffin cells. Cellular and Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 19(12), 101610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmgh.2025.101610
Van Galen, K. A., Ter Horst, K. W., & Serlie, M. J. (2021). Serotonin, food intake, and obesity. Obesity Reviews, 22(7), e13210. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13210
Crowell, M. D. (2004). Role of serotonin in the pathophysiology of the irritable bowel syndrome. British Journal of Pharmacology, 141(8), 1285–1293. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0705762
Bellono, N. W., Bayrer, J. R., Leitch, D. B., Castro, J., Zhang, C., O’Donnell, T. A., Brierley, S. M., Ingraham, H. A., & Julius, D. (2017). Enterochromaffin Cells Are Gut Chemosensors that Couple to Sensory Neural Pathways. Cell, 170(1), 185-198.e16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2017.05.034
Terry, N., & Margolis, K. G. (2016). Serotonergic mechanisms regulating the GI tract: experimental evidence and therapeutic relevance. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 239, 319–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2016_103
Dontamsetti, K. D., Pedrosa‐Suarez, L. C., Aktar, R., & Peiris, M. (2024). Sensing of luminal contents and downstream modulation of GI function. JGH Open, 8(5), e13083. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgh3.13083
Wei, L., Singh, R., & Ghoshal, U. C. (2022). Enterochromaffin Cells–Gut Microbiota crosstalk: Underpinning the symptoms, pathogenesis, and pharmacotherapy in disorders of Gut-Brain interaction. Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility, 28(3), 357–375. https://doi.org/10.5056/jnm22008
Li, G., Dong, S., Liu, C., Yang, J., Rensen, P. C. N., & Wang, Y. (2024). Serotonin signaling to regulate energy metabolism: a gut microbiota perspective. Life Metabolism, 4(2), loae039. https://doi.org/10.1093/lifemeta/loae039
Hagbom, M., Istrate, C., Engblom, D., Karlsson, T., Rodriguez-Diaz, J., Buesa, J., Taylor, J. A., Loitto, V., Magnusson, K., Ahlman, H., Lundgren, O., & Svensson, L. (2011). Rotavirus Stimulates Release of Serotonin (5-HT) from Human Enterochromaffin Cells and Activates Brain Structures Involved in Nausea and Vomiting. PLoS Pathogens, 7(7), e1002115. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002115
Glucagon-Like Peptide 1
Glucagon-Like Peptide 1
(GLP-1)
(GLP-1)
Yu, S., Lee, Y., Boggess, S. C., Klein, N. R., Teyssier, N., Kampmann, M., & Knight, Z. A. (2025). A genetic screen in enteroendocrine cells reveals mechanisms that control protein sensing and GLP-1 release. bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory). https://doi.org/10.64898/2025.11.30.691441
Brierley, D. I., & De Lartigue, G. (2021). Reappraising the role of the vagus nerve in GLP‐1‐mediated regulation of eating. British Journal of Pharmacology, 179(4), 584–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.15603
Sun, E. W., De Fontgalland, D., Rabbitt, P., Hollington, P., Sposato, L., Due, S. L., Wattchow, D. A., Rayner, C. K., Deane, A. M., Young, R. L., & Keating, D. J. (2017). Mechanisms controlling Glucose-Induced GLP-1 secretion in human small intestine. Diabetes, 66(8), 2144–2149. https://doi.org/10.2337/db17-0058
Lumsden, A. L., Martin, A. M., Sun, E. W., Schober, G., Isaacs, N. J., Pezos, N., Wattchow, D. A., De Fontgalland, D., Rabbitt, P., Hollington, P., Sposato, L., Due, S. L., Rayner, C. K., Nguyen, N. Q., Liou, A. P., Jackson, V. M., Young, R. L., & Keating, D. J. (2019). Sugar responses of human enterochromaffin cells depend on gut region, sex, and body mass. Nutrients, 11(2), 234. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020234
Röder, P. V., Geillinger, K. E., Zietek, T. S., Thorens, B., Koepsell, H., & Daniel, H. (2014). The role of SGLT1 and GLUT2 in intestinal glucose transport and sensing. PLoS ONE, 9(2), e89977. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089977
Koepsell, H. (2020). Glucose transporters in the small intestine in health and disease. Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology, 472(9), 1207–1248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-020-02439-5
Cholecystokinin
Cholecystokinin
(CCK)
(CCK)
Raybould, H. E. (2007). Mechanisms of CCK signaling from gut to brain. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 7(6), 570–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coph.2007.09.006
Rehfeld, J. F. (2017). Cholecystokinin—From local gut hormone to ubiquitous messenger. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 8, 47. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2017.00047
Asim, M., Wang, H., Waris, A., Qianqian, G., & Chen, X. (2024). Cholecystokinin neurotransmission in the central nervous system: Insights into its role in health and disease. BioFactors, 50(6), 1060–1075. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.2081
Cheung, G. W., Kokorovic, A., Lam, C. K., Chari, M., & Lam, T. K. (2009). Intestinal Cholecystokinin Controls Glucose Production through a Neuronal Network. Cell Metabolism, 10(2), 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2009.07.005
Peptide YY
Peptide YY
(PYY)
(PYY)
Karra, E., Chandarana, K., & Batterham, R. L. (2008). The role of peptide YY in appetite regulation and obesity. The Journal of Physiology, 587(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2008.164269
Cheung, G. W., Kokorovic, A., Lam, C. K., Chari, M., & Lam, T. K. (2009). Intestinal Cholecystokinin Controls Glucose Production through a Neuronal Network. Cell Metabolism, 10(2), 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2009.07.005
Ghrelin
Ghrelin
Young, E. R., & Jialal, I. (2023, July 17). Biochemistry, Ghrelin. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547692/
Cong, W., Golden, E., Pantaleo, N., White, C. M., Maudsley, S., & Martin, B. (2010). Ghrelin receptor signaling: a promising therapeutic target for metabolic syndrome and cognitive dysfunction. CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets, 9(5), 557–563. https://doi.org/10.2174/187152710793361513
Nogueiras, R., Williams, L. M., & Dieguez, C. (2010). Ghrelin: New molecular pathways modulating appetite and adiposity. Obesity Facts, 3(5), 3. https://doi.org/10.1159/000321265
Behaviors and The Brain
Behaviors and The Brain
Yassin, L. K., Nakhal, M. M., Alderei, A., Almehairbi, A., Mydeen, A. B., Akour, A., & Hamad, M. I. K. (2025). Exploring the microbiota-gut-brain axis: impact on brain structure and function. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 19, 1504065. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2025.1504065
Huang, T. X., Wang, S., & Ran, C. (2025). Interoceptive processing in the nucleus of the solitary tract. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 93, 103021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2025.103021
Appetitive and Homeostatic Control of Food Intake
Appetitive and Homeostatic Control of Food Intake
Clarke, G. S., Page, A. J., & Eldeghaidy, S. (2024). The gut–brain axis in appetite, satiety, food intake, and eating behavior: Insights from animal models and human studies. Pharmacology Research & Perspectives, 12(5), e70027. https://doi.org/10.1002/prp2.70027
⬇️ Circuits involved in food reward and intake. Neural and hormonal signals get integrated in the hypothalamus, which acts to coordinate the need for energy (feeding behavior) with the motivation to acquire the energy (reward-seeking behavior).
Hypothalamic control of food intake and energy metabolism - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-melanocortin-system-ARC-PVN-circuits-controlling-food-intake-and-body-weight_fig3_229433055 [accessed 6 Jul 2026]
⬇️ Food intake regulation is controlled by populations of neurons that extend from the ARC to the PVN. NPY/AgRP neurons (blue) promote feeding, while POMC neurons (orange) discourage feeding.
Ueno, H., & Nakazato, M. (2016). Mechanistic relationship between the vagal afferent pathway, central nervous system and peripheral organs in appetite regulation. Journal of Diabetes Investigation, 7(6), 812–818. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.12492
Williams, D. L. (2014). Neural integration of satiation and food reward: Role of GLP-1 and orexin pathways. Physiology & Behavior, 136, 194–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.03.013
Lutter, M., & Nestler, E. J. (2009). Homeostatic and hedonic signals interact in the regulation of food intake. Journal of Nutrition, 139(3), 629–632. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.108.097618
Hakizimana, J. C., Izabayo, P., Izukwizabigenza, Z., & Alagbonsi, A. I. (2025). Orexinergic pathway as a potential therapeutic candidate for the modulation of glucose homeostasis. Frontiers in Physiology, 16, 1659753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2025.1659753
D’Agostino, G., Lyons, D. J., Cristiano, C., Burke, L. K., Madara, J. C., Campbell, J. N., Garcia, A. P., Land, B. B., Lowell, B. B., Dileone, R. J., & Heisler, L. K. (2016). Appetite controlled by a cholecystokinin nucleus of the solitary tract to hypothalamus neurocircuit. eLife, 5. https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.12225
Ahn, B. H., Kim, M., & Kim, S. (2022). Brain circuits for promoting homeostatic and non-homeostatic appetites. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 54(4), 349–357. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-022-00758-4
Sohn, J., Elmquist, J. K., & Williams, K. W. (2013). Neuronal circuits that regulate feeding behavior and metabolism. Trends in Neurosciences, 36(9), 504–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2013.05.003
Cabot, L., Erlenbeck-Dinkelmann, J., & Fenselau, H. (2023). Neural gut-to-brain communication for postprandial control of satiation and glucose metabolism. Journal of Endocrinology, 258(3). https://doi.org/10.1530/joe-22-0320
Stress and the HPA Axis
Stress and the HPA Axis
Foster, J. A., Rinaman, L., & Cryan, J. F. (2017). Stress & the gut-brain axis: Regulation by the microbiome. Neurobiology of Stress, 7, 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2017.03.001
Lutter, M., & Nestler, E. J. (2009). Homeostatic and hedonic signals interact in the regulation of food intake. Journal of Nutrition, 139(3), 629–632. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.108.097618
Ahn, B. H., Kim, M., & Kim, S. (2022). Brain circuits for promoting homeostatic and non-homeostatic appetites. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 54(4), 349–357. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-022-00758-4
Rusch, J. A., Layden, B. T., & Dugas, L. R. (2023). Signalling cognition: the gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 14, 1130689. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1130689
D’Agostino, G., Lyons, D. J., Cristiano, C., Burke, L. K., Madara, J. C., Campbell, J. N., Garcia, A. P., Land, B. B., Lowell, B. B., Dileone, R. J., & Heisler, L. K. (2016). Appetite controlled by a cholecystokinin nucleus of the solitary tract to hypothalamus neurocircuit. eLife, 5. https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.12225
Sohn, J., Elmquist, J. K., & Williams, K. W. (2013). Neuronal circuits that regulate feeding behavior and metabolism. Trends in Neurosciences, 36(9), 504–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2013.05.003
Malesu, Vijay. (2025, March 10). The link between cortisol, inflammation, and disease. https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Link-Between-Cortisol-Inflammation-and-Disease.aspx
Sudo, N. (2019). Role of gut microbiota in brain function and stress-related pathology. Bioscience of Microbiota Food and Health, 38(3), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.12938/bmfh.19-006
Gut Microbiota
Gut Microbiota
The Bacteria
The Bacteria
Magne, F., Gotteland, M., Gauthier, L., Zazueta, A., Pesoa, S., Navarrete, P., & Balamurugan, R. (2020). The Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio: a relevant marker of gut dysbiosis in obese patients? Nutrients, 12(5), 1474. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051474
Tura, M. (2025, July 16). List of the most common gut bacteria. Fifth Ray. https://fifthray.co.uk/blogs/news/list-of-the-most-common-gut-bacteria
Abdulqadir, R., Engers, J., & Al-Sadi, R. (2023). Role of bifidobacterium in modulating the intestinal epithelial tight junction barrier: Current knowledge and Perspectives. Current Developments in Nutrition, 7(12), 102026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cdnut.2023.102026
Valdes, A. M., Walter, J., Segal, E., & Spector, T. D. (2018). Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health. BMJ, 361, k2179. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2179
Rowland, I., Gibson, G., Heinken, A., Scott, K., Swann, J., Thiele, I., & Tuohy, K. (2017). Gut microbiota functions: metabolism of nutrients and other food components. European Journal of Nutrition, 57(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-017-1445-8
The Molecules
The Molecules
Jyoti, & Dey, P. (2025). Mechanisms and implications of the gut microbial modulation of intestinal metabolic processes. Npj Metabolic Health and Disease, 3(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44324-025-00066-1
⬇️ Summary of the functions of the different SCFAS; acetate, propionate, and butyrate.
Hsiao, W. W., Metz, C., Singh, D. P., & Roth, J. (2008). The microbes of the intestine: an introduction to their metabolic and signaling capabilities. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 37(4), 857–871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2008.08.006
Gorbach, S. L. (1996). Microbiology of the gastrointestinal tract. Medical Microbiology - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7670/
Moțățăianu, A., Șerban, G., & Andone, S. (2023). The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Microbiota–Gut–Brain Cross-Talk with a Focus on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(20), 15094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms242015094
Chambers, E. S., Morrison, D. J., & Frost, G. (2014). Control of appetite and energy intake by SCFA: what are the potential underlying mechanisms? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 74(3), 328–336. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0029665114001657
Byrne, C. S., Chambers, E. S., Morrison, D. J., & Frost, G. (2015). The role of short chain fatty acids in appetite regulation and energy homeostasis. International Journal of Obesity, 39(9), 1331–1338. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2015.84
Thornton, T., Mills, D., & Bliss, E. (2023). The impact of lipopolysaccharide on cerebrovascular function and cognition resulting from obesity-induced gut dysbiosis. Life Sciences, 336, 122337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2023.122337
Braga, J. D., Thongngam, M., & Kumrungsee, T. (2024). Gamma-aminobutyric acid as a potential postbiotic mediator in the gut–brain axis. Npj Science of Food, 8(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-024-00253-2
Seyedsayamdost, M. R., & Clardy, J. (2023). Discovering functional small molecules in the gut microbiome. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 75, 102309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.102309
Probiotics
Probiotics
Delgado, S., Sánchez, B., Margolles, A., Ruas-Madiedo, P., & Ruiz, L. (2020). Molecules Produced by Probiotics and Intestinal Microorganisms with Immunomodulatory Activity. Nutrients, 12(2), 391. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020391
Shah, A. B., Baiseitova, A., Zahoor, M., Ahmad, I., Ikram, M., Bakhsh, A., Shah, M. A., Ali, I., Idress, M., Ullah, R., Nasr, F. A., & Al-Zharani, M. (2024). Probiotic significance of Lactobacillus strains: a comprehensive review on health impacts, research gaps, and future prospects. Gut Microbes, 16(1), 2431643. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2024.2431643
Related Diseases
Related Diseases
Madison, A., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2019). Stress, depression, diet, and the gut microbiota: human–bacteria interactions at the core of psychoneuroimmunology and nutrition. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 28, 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.01.011
Liu, L., Huh, J. R., & Shah, K. (2022). Microbiota and the gut-brain-axis: Implications for new therapeutic design in the CNS. EBioMedicine, 77, 103908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.103908
Lu, S., Zhao, Q., Guan, Y., Sun, Z., Li, W., Guo, S., & Zhang, A. (2024). The communication mechanism of the gut-brain axis and its effect on central nervous system diseases: A systematic review. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 178, 117207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117207
Depression and Mood Disorders
Depression and Mood Disorders
Liu, L., & Zhu, G. (2018). Gut–Brain axis and mood disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 223. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00223
Bertollo, A. G., Santos, C. F., Bagatini, M. D., & Ignácio, Z. M. (2025). Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal and gut-brain axes in biological interaction pathway of the depression. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 19, 1541075. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2025.1541075
Obesity
Obesity
Van Der Valk, E. S., Savas, M., & Van Rossum, E. F. C. (2018). Stress and obesity: Are there more susceptible individuals? Current Obesity Reports, 7(2), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-018-0306-y
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