I. Overview of the Kyoto School of Philosophy

• A unique school of thought originating in early 20th century Japan at Kyoto University.

• Aimed to articulate an original philosophy by synthesizing Western philosophy (especially German idealism, existentialism, and phenomenology) with Eastern thought (especially Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Zen).

• Focused on questions of nothingness, being, existence, ethics, the self, and religion.

• Notable for its non-dualistic metaphysics and its exploration of the relationship between the individual and the world.

II. Main Ideas and Concepts

• Absolute Nothingness (Mu, zettai mu): A central concept, derived from the Buddhist concept of emptiness (sunyata). It's not merely a negation of being but a dynamic, creative ground of all existence. It transcends and encompasses both being and non-being. It is understood as the field of relationality where all beings arise and pass away.

• Basho (Place, basho): A term used by Nishida, influenced by Plato's khora, denoting the "place" or "field" of absolute nothingness. It's a dynamic, relational context in which all things are interconnected and mutually defining. Basho is not a static container but a dynamic interplay of forces.

• Contradictory Self-Identity: Nishida's concept that emphasizes the dynamic, paradoxical nature of reality and the self. The self is both individual and part of the larger whole, constantly negotiating these seemingly contradictory aspects.

• Pure Experience: Another key concept of Nishida, referring to the immediate, pre-reflective experience of reality, before it's conceptualized and categorized. It's a state of unity between subject and object. Nishida sees it as the starting point of philosophical inquiry.

• The Acting Intuition: A term introduced by Nishida to explain how the self actively participates in the creation of reality through its engaged interaction with the world. It combines both practical activity and a type of intuitive understanding.

• Historical Reality/Historical World: Reality is not static but constantly changing and unfolding within a historical context. The self is a historical being, shaped by its past and contributing to the future. The world itself has a historical character.

• Logic of Soku Hi (is/is not): A logic inspired by the Buddhist thought, particularly the Heart Sutra. It signifies the dynamic interplay of affirmation and negation, where things are simultaneously what they are and what they are not, due to their interconnectedness and constant change.

• Religiosity/Philosophy of Religion: Many thinkers of the school explored religious experience and the nature of religion. The Kyoto School developed a unique philosophy of religion, drawing inspiration from both Buddhist and Christian traditions, emphasizing the experiential and existential dimensions of faith.

III. Timeline of Main Thinkers and Books with Historical, Political, and Cultural Context

• Early 20th Century Japan (Meiji and Taisho Periods):
  
  

  • Rapid modernization and Westernization following the Meiji Restoration (1868).

  • Influx of Western philosophy and science.

  • Rise of nationalism and search for a distinct Japanese identity.

  • Growing interest in Buddhist thought as a response to the challenges of modernity.

• 1870-1945: Nishida Kitarō
  
  

  • 1911: An Inquiry into the Good (Zen no Kenkyū) - Nishida's first major work, exploring pure experience and ethics. Lays the groundwork for many of his later ideas.

  • 1926-1927: From the Acting to the Seeing (Hataraku mono kara miru mono e) - Articulates the concept of basho and the contradictory self-identity.

  • 1933-1945: Various essays including the "Fundamental Problems of Philosophy" - Develops his logic of place and his philosophy of history.

  • Political Context: Nishida was not overtly political but his ideas were later, and unfortunately, appropriated by some for nationalistic purposes (e.g. the concept of "Japanese spirit"). However, Nishida himself was critical of narrow nationalism.

• 1885-1962: Tanabe Hajime
  
  

  • 1920s-1930s: Early works influenced by Neo-Kantianism and phenomenology.

  • 1934: Philosophy of Science (Kagaku Tetsugaku) - Criticizes positivism and explores the philosophical foundations of science.

  • 1946: Philosophy as Metanoetics (Zangedō to shite no tetsugaku) - A major shift, influenced by Shin Buddhism and existentialism. Emphasizes repentance and faith as a path to understanding absolute nothingness.

  • Political Context: Tanabe initially supported the Japanese war effort, but he later became a critic of militarism and nationalism after his turn towards Shin Buddhism.

• 1889-1960: Watsuji Tetsurō
  
  

  • 1913-1915: A Study of Søren Kierkegaard (Sōren Kierukegōru no Kenkyū)

  • 1918: Ancient Japanese Culture (Koji Junrei)

  • 1935: Climate and Culture: A Philosophical Study (Fūdo) - Explores the relationship between climate, culture, and human existence.

  • 1961 (posthumous): Ethics as Anthropology (Ningen-gaku toshite no rinrigaku) - A systematic study of ethics based on the concept of human relatedness.

  • Political Context: Watsuji was a cultural critic and nationalist thinker. His work on Fūdo has been controversial due to its deterministic implications and its potential for nationalistic interpretations.

• 1897-1969: Tosaka Jun
  
  

  • 1935: The Japanese Ideology (Nihon ideorogī ron) - A Marxist critique of Japanese nationalism and ideology.

  • 1936: The Ideology of the Japanese Imperial Way: Its Historical Significance (Kōdōgaku no Rekishiteki Igi) - A critique of the state ideology of the time.

  • Political Context: Tosaka was a Marxist philosopher and a vocal critic of Japanese imperialism. He was arrested and imprisoned for his views, and died shortly after his release.

• 1900-1968: Miki Kiyoshi
  
  

  • 1926-1928: The Problem of Life: An Introduction to Philosophy (Jinseiron Nōto) - A popular introduction to philosophy in which Miki advocates for a new humanism, drawing from both Western and Eastern thought.

  • 1939-1940: The Logic of Imagination (Kōsōryoku no ronri) - Explores the role of imagination in human knowledge and experience.

  • Political Context: Miki was initially sympathetic to Marxism but later moved towards a more liberal and humanist position. He was arrested and imprisoned at the end of the war and died in prison shortly after being released.

• 1901-1960: Hisamatsu Shin'ichi
  
  

  • 1930s-1950s: Various writings on Zen Buddhism and aesthetics.

  • 1960s-1970s: Posthumous publication of his collected works.

  • Key Concepts: F-A-S (Formless self, All humankind, Super-historical history). Seven characteristics of Zen aesthetics.

  • Influence: A leading figure in the development of a modern Zen philosophy, drawing on both traditional Zen teachings and Western philosophy.

• 1905-1966: Nishitani Keiji
  
  

  • 1940s: Early works on existentialism and nihilism.

  • 1982 (English Translation): Religion and Nothingness (Shūkyō to wa nanika) - His magnum opus, a profound exploration of the relationship between religion, nothingness, and the self, drawing on both Buddhist and Western thought.

  • Influence: A key figure in the development of a philosophy of religion and an important interlocutor between East and West.

IV. Main Thinkers and Debates

• Nishida Kitarō vs. Tanabe Hajime:

  • Debate on the Nature of Absolute Nothingness: Tanabe criticized Nishida's concept of absolute nothingness as being too static and abstract. He proposed a more dynamic and dialectical understanding, informed by his later turn to Shin Buddhism.

  • Debate on the Relationship between Philosophy and Religion: Tanabe emphasized the importance of religious faith (specifically metanoetics, or repentance), while Nishida focused more on the role of philosophical inquiry.

• Nishida Kitarō vs. Watsuji Tetsurō:

  • Debate on Ethics and the Self: Watsuji criticized Nishida's ethics as being too individualistic. He emphasized the importance of human relatedness and the social context of ethical action.

• Tosaka Jun vs. other Kyoto School Thinkers:

  • Critique of Nationalism and Idealism: Tosaka, as a Marxist, criticized the idealistic tendencies of the Kyoto School and its potential for appropriation by nationalistic ideology.

• The Role of Politics and Ideology:

  • The Kyoto School was not a monolithic entity, and its members held diverse political views. Some, like Tosaka and Miki, were critical of the state, while others, like Watsuji, were more aligned with nationalist ideas. The relationship between the Kyoto School and Japanese nationalism remains a complex and contested issue.

V. Reception and Criticism

• Initial Reception: The Kyoto School gained significant influence in Japan during the early 20th century, attracting a large following among intellectuals and students.

• Criticism:

  • Obscurity and Ambiguity: Critics have pointed to the difficult and sometimes obscure language used by some Kyoto School thinkers.

  • Idealism and Abstraction: Some have criticized the school for its idealistic tendencies and its focus on abstract concepts.

  • Nationalistic Appropriation: The most serious criticism is that some of the school's ideas were appropriated by Japanese nationalists to justify their ideology and actions, particularly during World War II. However, it's important to note that not all members of the school were nationalists, and some, like Tosaka, were explicitly anti-nationalist.

VI. Influence

• Development of Japanese Philosophy: The Kyoto School played a crucial role in the development of a unique tradition of Japanese philosophy, distinct from both Western and traditional Eastern thought.

• Interreligious Dialogue: The school's engagement with both Buddhism and Christianity has contributed to interreligious dialogue and comparative philosophy.

• Existentialism and Phenomenology: The Kyoto School's engagement with existentialism and phenomenology has influenced the development of these fields, particularly in Japan.

• Postmodern Thought: Some of the school's key concepts, such as nothingness and basho, have resonated with postmodern thinkers and have been interpreted in new ways in the context of contemporary philosophy.

• Continued Relevance: The Kyoto School continues to be studied and debated today, both in Japan and internationally. Its ideas remain relevant to contemporary discussions about the self, being, ethics, religion, and the relationship between East and West. Its explorations of nothingness, relationality, and the nature of experience offer valuable insights for contemporary philosophy and thought.

• Art and Aesthetics: The school had a lasting influence on Japanese art and aesthetics, with figures like Hisamatsu playing a major role in shaping modern understandings of Zen aesthetics and influencing art practices.

In conclusion, the Kyoto School of Philosophy represents a significant and complex chapter in the history of modern thought. Its unique blend of Eastern and Western ideas, its exploration of fundamental philosophical questions, and its engagement with the challenges of modernity continue to make it a rich and rewarding subject of study. While its legacy is not without controversy, its contributions to philosophy, religious thought, and intercultural dialogue are undeniable.