Early Life and Education (1900-1928):
Born in 1900 in a small coastal town in Ishikawa Prefecture, Nishitani was exposed to a Japan undergoing rapid modernization and Westernization following the Meiji Restoration (1868). This era saw a conscious effort to adopt Western technology, political systems, and ideas, while also retaining aspects of Japanese tradition. The tension and interplay between tradition and modernity formed a crucial backdrop to Nishitani's intellectual development.
He entered Kyoto Imperial University, the center of Japanese philosophical thought at the time, in 1924. Under the tutelage of Kitaro Nishida, he was immersed in a vibrant intellectual environment that sought to synthesize Western philosophy with Japanese thought, particularly Zen Buddhism. This endeavor came to be known as the Kyoto School.
European Study (1928-1932):
Nishitani's time in Freiburg, Germany, exposed him to the flourishing of existentialism and phenomenology, particularly through his studies with Martin Heidegger. The intellectual climate in Europe was marked by the aftermath of World War I, the rise of totalitarian ideologies, and a growing sense of disillusionment with traditional values, all of which resonated with Nishitani's developing concerns about nihilism.
Academic Career in Japan (1932-1945): The Rise of Nationalism:
Upon his return, Japan was increasingly dominated by ultra-nationalist and militarist ideologies. The 1930s saw the rise of a totalitarian state that emphasized the uniqueness and superiority of Japanese culture and sought to expand its influence in Asia through military conquest. This atmosphere of nationalist fervor impacted the intellectual community, and philosophers were not immune to its pressures.
Nishitani, although not an active proponent of militant nationalism, participated in some discussions held by the Chuokoron group. He faced criticism post-war for his perceived quiet acquiescence to the prevailing political climate. The Kyoto School itself was criticized for its philosophical abstractions that seemingly lacked concrete engagement with pressing social and political issues, although this criticism is also seen as highly biased due to the political climate at the time.
Post-War Years and Retirement (1945-1990): Reflection and Reassessment:
Japan's defeat in World War II and the subsequent American occupation brought about a radical shift in the political and intellectual landscape. The pre-war nationalist ideology was thoroughly discredited, and there was a renewed emphasis on democracy and individual freedoms.
Nishitani, like many other intellectuals, engaged in a period of self-reflection and reevaluation of his earlier work. While he continued to defend the core of his philosophy, he also acknowledged the need for greater clarity on its social and political implications. During these years, he focused on the problem of nihilism, writing What is Religion?, and deepening his engagement with religious thought.
In his later years, he was a respected elder statesman of Japanese philosophy. The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence of interest in existentialism and a growing fascination with Eastern thought in the West, creating a more receptive environment for Nishitani's ideas internationally.
Early Influences: Nishitani's early engagement with Western philosophy was primarily through the lens of Nishida's thought, which itself was a complex synthesis of Western and Eastern ideas. He was exposed to figures like Kant, Hegel, Bergson, and James.
Heidegger and Existentialism: Nishitani's encounter with Heidegger was transformative. He found in Heidegger's existentialism a powerful framework for understanding the anxieties and uncertainties of modern existence. However, he also came to believe that Heidegger's thought remained trapped within a Western framework and ultimately failed to overcome nihilism fully. He felt Heidegger was too entangled in the Greek origins of Western thought and that only a move "beyond" onto-theology, namely to the absolute nothingness of Buddhism, could truly overcome nihilism.
Critique of Western Metaphysics: Nishitani became increasingly critical of what he saw as the limitations of Western metaphysics, particularly its tendency towards subjectivism and its inability to adequately grasp the nature of nothingness. He argued that Western thought, from Plato to Nietzsche, had been dominated by a "will to power" that ultimately led to nihilism.
Dialogue and Synthesis: Despite his criticisms, Nishitani was not dismissive of Western philosophy. He saw it as a valuable tradition with which Eastern thought needed to engage in a critical and constructive dialogue. He believed that a genuine synthesis of East and West could lead to a more profound understanding of the human condition and the nature of reality.
Christian Mysticism: Nishitani found a point of connection between Eastern and Western thought in the mystical tradition of Christianity, particularly the works of Meister Eckhart and St. John of the Cross. He saw parallels between their understanding of the "Godhead" beyond God and the Buddhist concept of sunyata.
Context: Published in 1961, What is Religion? represents the culmination of Nishitani's mature thought. It is a profound and challenging work that tackles fundamental questions about the nature of religion, the problem of nihilism, and the possibility of human existence in a world seemingly devoid of inherent meaning.
Key Arguments:
The Problem of Nihilism: Nishitani argues that nihilism is the defining characteristic of the modern age. The "death of God" and the decline of traditional values have left humanity in a state of existential despair, facing a world that appears meaningless and absurd.
The "Great Doubt": Nishitani sees the root of nihilism in a fundamental "Great Doubt" that arises from our awareness of our own finitude and the contingency of existence. This doubt undermines all attempts to find meaning and purpose in the world of relative phenomena.
The Field of Sunyata (Emptiness): Nishitani proposes that the way to overcome nihilism is not through intellectual arguments or the creation of new values, but through a radical existential shift to the "field of sunyata." This is not a mere negation of being, but a dynamic emptiness that is the ground of all being, an emptiness that is also fullness, a positive force.
Conversion: This shift involves a "conversion" or "turning-about" (similar to the concept of metanoia in Christianity) in the depths of one's being, a radical reorientation that transcends the subject-object duality and opens one to the reality of absolute nothingness. This "great death" is also a "great life."
Religion as the Realization of Sunyata: Nishitani sees religion, at its core, as the process of realizing sunyata. He draws on both Zen Buddhism and Christian mysticism to illustrate this point, emphasizing the importance of practices like meditation and contemplation in facilitating the experience of emptiness. He also discusses Amida Buddha and the concept of "absolute other power" as a religious manifestation of sunyata.
True Self and Impersonal Person: In the field of sunyata, one realizes their "true self," which is not an individual ego but a dynamic and interconnected reality that is one with all beings. This true self, while beyond the limitations of the ego, manifests as a "person" in a new way, becoming an "impersonal person."
Ethics and Action: The realization of sunyata is not a withdrawal from the world but a return to it with a renewed sense of compassion and responsibility. Ethics, from this perspective, arises naturally from the realization of interconnectedness and the desire to alleviate suffering.
Significance: What is Religion? is a landmark work in the philosophy of religion and a major contribution to the East-West philosophical dialogue. It offers a unique and challenging perspective on the nature of religious experience and its potential to address the deepest existential questions of our time.
Summary:
Keiji Nishitani was a pivotal figure in 20th-century Japanese philosophy. His life and work were deeply intertwined with the cultural and political upheavals of his time. He navigated the complexities of tradition and modernity, East and West, and ultimately forged a philosophical path that sought to overcome nihilism through a profound encounter with the reality of absolute nothingness. His legacy continues to inspire and challenge thinkers across disciplines and cultural boundaries.