Mencius (c. 372 – 289 BCE), whose birth name was Meng Ke (孟軻), was a Chinese Confucian philosopher often described as the "Second Sage," meaning second in importance only to Confucius himself. He was born in the State of Zou (鄒), near Confucius's birthplace in the State of Lu, both located in modern-day Shandong province. Like Confucius, he traveled among different states, offering counsel to rulers on how to govern virtuously. He was a student of Zisi, Confucius' grandson. After a period of service as an official and teacher in the State of Qi, he eventually retired from public life, disillusioned with the political turmoil of his time.
Mencius's philosophy is primarily preserved in the book bearing his name, the Mengzi (孟子), which records his conversations with rulers, disciples, and philosophical opponents. His key ideas include:
The Innate Goodness of Human Nature (性善): This is perhaps Mencius's most famous doctrine. He argued that all human beings are born with an inherent inclination towards goodness, possessing four "sprouts" or "beginnings":
Compassion (惻隱之心): The feeling of commiseration, leading to ren (仁 benevolence, humaneness).
Shame and Dislike (羞惡之心): The feeling of shame and dislike, leading to yi (義 righteousness, duty).
Deference and Compliance (辭讓之心): The feeling of humility and yielding, leading to li (禮 propriety, ritual).
Right and Wrong (是非之心): The feeling of right and wrong, leading to zhi (智 wisdom).
Mencius believed that these sprouts need to be cultivated through moral education and self-reflection to reach their full potential, much like a plant needs water and sunlight to grow.
Benevolent Government (仁政): Mencius advocated for a government that rules with compassion and prioritizes the well-being of the people. He believed that a ruler's primary duty is to ensure the economic stability and moral development of his subjects. He famously said, "The people are of supreme importance; the altars to the gods of earth and grain come next; the ruler counts for the least." He even argued that the people have the right to overthrow a tyrannical ruler who fails to fulfill his moral obligations, a concept known as the "Mandate of Heaven" (天命).
Moral Cultivation (修身): Mencius emphasized the importance of individual moral development. He believed that through self-cultivation, individuals can develop their innate goodness and become virtuous, contributing to a more harmonious society.
Emphasis on Ren and Yi: Like Confucius, Mencius placed a strong emphasis on ren (benevolence, humaneness) and yi (righteousness, duty). He saw these as the fundamental virtues that should guide human action and social interaction.
Warring States Period (475-221 BCE): Mencius lived during the latter part of the Warring States period, a time of intense political turmoil, constant warfare, and social upheaval in China. The Zhou dynasty had long since lost its effective power, and the country was divided into numerous competing states vying for dominance. This context is crucial for understanding Mencius's philosophy, as he sought to offer a solution to the chaos and suffering of his time. His emphasis on benevolent government and moral cultivation was a direct response to the brutality and political instability he witnessed.
Hundred Schools of Thought: The Warring States period was also a time of great intellectual ferment, known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought." Various philosophical schools emerged, offering different approaches to restoring order and achieving social harmony. Mencius was a prominent voice within this intellectual landscape, defending and developing Confucianism against competing schools like Mohism (which advocated universal love) and Legalism (which emphasized strict laws and harsh punishments).
Legacy and Influence: Although Mencius's ideas were not immediately adopted by the rulers of his time, his philosophy had a profound and lasting impact on Chinese thought and culture. The Mengzi became one of the core texts of Confucianism, shaping the ethical and political ideals of subsequent dynasties. His ideas on benevolent government, the goodness of human nature, and the importance of moral cultivation continue to resonate in East Asian societies today. During the Song dynasty, his work was elevated to the status of Confucian classic.
Mencius was an important figure in the development of Confucianism. Living during a time of great upheaval, he offered a hopeful vision of human potential and a path to social harmony based on the cultivation of inherent goodness. His work continues to be studied and debated, offering insights into both ancient Chinese thought and the enduring questions of human nature and ethical governance.
"The great man is he who does not lose his child's-heart." This quote reflects Mencius's belief in the inherent goodness of human nature. He suggests that true greatness lies in preserving the innate innocence, curiosity, and compassion we possess as children.
"Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the suffering of others." This emphasizes Mencius's idea that all humans possess a capacity for empathy and compassion. He believed that this innate sensitivity to suffering is a fundamental aspect of our moral nature.
"When Heaven is about to confer a great responsibility on any man, it will exercise his mind with suffering, subject his sinews and bones to hard work, expose his body to hunger, put him to poverty, place obstacles in the paths of his deeds, so as to stimulate his spirit, toughen his nature, and enable him to achieve what he would otherwise be incapable of." This powerful quote speaks to Mencius's belief that adversity and challenges are essential for personal growth and development. He suggests that facing hardships can strengthen our resolve and prepare us for greater responsibilities.
"The people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain come next; the sovereign counts for the least." This quote highlights Mencius's emphasis on the importance of the people in a just and prosperous society. He believed that rulers should prioritize the welfare of their subjects above all else, even their own interests.
"Benevolence brings under its sway whatever hinders its power, just as water subdues fire. Those, however, who nowadays practice benevolence do it as if with one cup of water they could save a whole wagonload of burning firewood. In that case, what is the use of such benevolence?" This quote underscores Mencius's belief that true benevolence requires consistent action and dedication. He cautions against superficial acts of kindness, advocating for genuine commitment to the well-being of others.
"Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application?" This quote reflects Mencius's emphasis on the importance of continuous learning and self-cultivation. He believed that education is crucial for moral development and the pursuit of wisdom.
Longer Quotes:
On the Innate Goodness of Human Nature (and the Four Sprouts):
"All men have a mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others...Now, when men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they all have a feeling of alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child's parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child]. From such a case, we see that a man without the feeling of commiseration is not a man; a man without the feeling of shame and dislike is not a man; a man without the feeling of deference and compliance is not a man; and a man without the feeling of right and wrong is not a man. The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom. Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs." ( Mengzi, 2A:6, trans. by D.C. Lau, altered)
This quote illustrates Mencius's core belief that human nature is inherently good, with innate moral tendencies that need to be cultivated. The example of the child about to fall into a well is a classic illustration of his argument.
On Benevolent Government and the People's Well-being:
"The people are to be valued most, the altars to the gods of earth and grain next, and the ruler least...When a feudal lord endangers the altars to the gods of earth and grain, he should be replaced. When the sacrificial animals are sleek, the offerings are clean, and the sacrifices are observed at due times, and yet floods and droughts come [by the agency of heaven], then the altars should be replaced." (Mengzi, 7B:14, trans. by D.C. Lau)
This passage highlights Mencius's emphasis on the ruler's responsibility to prioritize the well-being of the people. He even suggests that the people and the spirits of the land hold a higher position than the ruler, and a ruler who does not benefit them should be replaced. The suggestion that the people could even replace the altars of the land was revolutionary for the time.
On Moral Cultivation and Extending One's Goodness:
"Treat the aged of your own family in a manner befitting their venerable age and extend this treatment to the aged of other families; treat your own young in a manner befitting their tender age and extend this to the young of other families, and the empire can be turned around in the palm of your hand...Therefore, extending one's love to include others is sufficient to bring peace to the Four Seas; not extending one's love is having no way to bring peace even to one's wife and children. The one way in which the ancients greatly surpassed others was in taking what they did and extending it." (Mengzi, 1A:7, trans. by D.C. Lau, altered)
Here, Mencius underscores the importance of moral cultivation and the idea of extending one's natural feelings of love and compassion from one's own family to encompass all of humanity. This is a crucial step in creating a harmonious society.
On the Importance of a Righteous Heart and the Strength it Provides:
"I like fish, and I also like bear's paws. If I cannot have both, I will give up fish and take bear's paws. I like life, and I also like righteousness. If I cannot have both, I will give up life and take righteousness. I like life, indeed, but there is something I like more than life, and therefore, I will not seek to hold on to it by any means. I dislike death indeed, but there is something I dislike more than death, and therefore there are occasions when I will not avoid danger. If among the things a man likes there were nothing he liked more than life, why should he not do everything he could to hold on to it? And if among the things he dislikes there were nothing he disliked more than death, why should he not do everything he could to avoid danger? But there are ways of holding on to life, which a man does not use, and ways of avoiding death which a man does not follow." (Mengzi, 6A:10, trans. by D.C. Lau, altered)
This famous passage employs the analogy of fish and bear's paws to illustrate that righteousness is a higher value than life itself. A morally upright person will choose to do what is right even if it means sacrificing their own life, and will also avoid shame and disgrace more fervently than death. This shows how a heart concerned with what is right can provide the strength to endure any difficulty.
On the Importance of Education and Nurturing One's Nature:
"When the five grains are brought to maturity by receiving all the cherishing influence that is due to them, their stems may yet be unequal; but this is owing to the goodness or the poorness of the soil as a nourishing agent, and to the disproportion of the rain and the dew, and the human agency involved in nurturing it. Thus all things which are the same in kind are like one another; why should we doubt in regard to man, as if he were a solitary exception to this? The sage and we are the same in kind." (Mengzi, 6A:7, trans. by James Legge, altered)
This quote is an argument for the equal potential of human beings. Just as different seeds of the same plant can grow differently depending on their environment, so too can people's character be shaped by their circumstances. If provided with a good environment and education, all people can achieve greatness.
These quotes offer a glimpse into the richness and depth of Mencius's thought. They highlight his core beliefs about human nature, the role of government, and the importance of moral cultivation, offering a vision of a more just and humane society.