Embedded Files
Belladonna
Toxicity
Toxicity
Symptoms
Symptoms
Symptoms: Aggression, agitation, ataxia, bloating, blurred vision, burning throat, cardiovascular collapse, choreoathetosis, circulatory collapse, coma, confusion, convulsions, cycloplegia, delirium, depression, diminished bowel sounds or ileus, disorientation, drowsiness, dry mouth, dry mucous membranes, dry skin, fever, flushing, hallucinations, headache, heartburn, hyperreflexia, hyperglycemia, hypertension, hypotension, inability to sweat, incoherent speech, lethargy, leukocytosis, loss of consciousness, muscle spasms, mydriasis, numbness, paralysis, psychosis, respiratory failure, restlessness, seizures, short-term memory loss, tachycardia, trouble swallowing, urinary retention, visual disturbances, vomiting.
Duration of Symptoms: 24 hours with treatment.
Rate of Poison: 3-4 hours
Causes Death: Yes
Treatment: Activated charcoal, benzodiazepines, calabar bean (not recommended), drinking a warm glass of vinegar or mixture of mustard and water, gastrointestinal decontamination, gastric lavage, neostigmine, physostigmine.
Beautiful, yet deadly. The atropine from these flowers were used in the past to dilate women's eyes, since dilated pupils was a sign for beauty. In contrast, this plant was also used for warfare, but ironically an antidote for chemical warfare agents.
Photo: Helge Klaus Rieder - Wikimedia Commons
License: Public Domain
6-10 berries is enough to be toxic for an adult, 2-3 for a child. It takes approximately 600 mg to overdose.
Photo: Tubifex - Wikimedia Commons
License: Public Domain
Main Toxins
Main Toxins
Molecular structure of atropine (ChemDraw)
Atropine
Atropine
Atropine is known to be an anticholinergic blocking agent by acting as an antagonist to the acetylcholine receptor. It can also be defined as an antimuscarinic agent, which acts as an antagonist to muscarine, such as acetylcholine. To do this, atropine binds to the residues of the acetylcholine receptor, and prevents acetylcholine from binding to the receptor. By suppressing the action of acetylcholine, the activation of the parasympathetic nervous system is reduced.
In other words: Atropine blocks acetylcholine in the body, preventing it from sending crucial signals throughout the body. The signals from acetylcholine play a key role in parts of the nervous system that allow the body to rest and digest food. So when atropine blocks acetylcholine receptors from sending signals, the activity is reduced, causing issues to the body.
Atropine is considered a Schedule V drug in the United States. It is commonly used to dialate eyes at the eye doctor and an antidote for various poisonings.
Hyoscyamine
Hyoscyamine
Hyoscyamine is an alkaloid derivative from atropine and exhibits anticholinergic activity. Like atropine, hyoscyamine acts as an antagonist to acetylcholine receptors, which suppresses the activation of the parasympathetic nervous system. Hyoscyamine is easily hydrolyzed to tropine and tropic acid.
In other words: Hyoscyamine comes from atropine and also blocks acetylcholine in the body, preventing its signals from reaching other parts, resulting in more issues in the body. However, hyoscyamine can be broken down even further into tropine and tropic acid.
Hyoscyamine is used to treat abdominal cramps and pain. For people with Parkinson's Disease, it is used to help aid with tremours and rigid movements.
Level of Toxin: 0.2% - 2.0% in plant.
Impacting Dosage: Greater than 1.5 mg/day
Molecular structure of hyoscyamine (PubChem)
Molecular structure of scopolamine (PubChem)
Scopolamine (Hyoscine)
Scopolamine (Hyoscine)
Scopolamine is an antagonist for acetylcholine receptors and is a tropane alkaloid. Scopolamine blocks the receptors located on smooth muscle cells structures that are supplied by the postganglionic cholinergic nerves. Just like hyocyamine and atropine, scopolamine mimicks the activity of acetylcholine receptors and suppresses the activation of the parasympathetic nervous system.
In other words: Like atropine, scopolamine blocks acetocholine receptors from sending signals throughout the body. In this case, scopolamine targets receptors located on smooth muscle cells that control the automatic parts of your body in the nervous system, such as heartbeat and digestion. By blocking these receptors, heartbeat and digestion rates slow down.
Scopolamine is often used for nausea and motionsickness.
Other Toxins and Chemical Components
Other Toxins and Chemical Components
Limonene
Limonene
Limonene is a monoterpenoid compound that can be fatal if ingested or inhaled. Limonene has been known to cause respiratory issues by impairing lung functioning and causing shortness of breath. If in contact with limonene, irritation may occur and result in dermatitis. It is also considered an irritant to the eyes, the mouth, the throat, and the gastrointestinal tract.
In other words: Limonene is a type of chemical that can be really harmful if you breathe it in or if you accidentally swallow it. It can mess with your lungs and make it hard for you to breathe. If limonene touches your skin, it might cause irritation and skin rashes. It is also known to irritate your eyes, mouth, throat, and stomach.
Level of Toxin: 0.30% in leaves and 0.09% in flowers.
Impacting Dosage: 8 g/day
Methyl Salicylate
Methyl Salicylate
Methyl salicylate can be harmful if accidentally swallowed. If in contact with skin, may result in dermatitis and other health hazards, such as stimulation of the central nervous system responsible for respiration. Because methyl salicylate can also cause disruption with the metabolism process of lipids and carbohydrates, as well as with respiration, it is possible to have seizures and cerebral edema. In addition, one may even become lethargic. In worse cases, toxicity may result in coma or death.
In other words: Methyl salicylate is a substance that can be dangerous if you accidentally eat it. If it touches your skin, it might cause skin rashes and other health problems, like messing with your breathing system. It can also interfere with how your body breaks down fats and sugars, and with your breathing, which could lead to seizures and swelling in the brain. You might even feel very tired. In the worst cases, it can be so toxic that it could put you in a coma or even cause death.
Level of Toxin: 1.39% in leaves and 1.53% in flowers.
Impacting Dosage: Child: 228 mg/kg; adult: 506 mg/kg.
Solanine
Solanine
Solanine is a glycoalkaloid that can disrupt cell membrane activity and cause the inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Solanine also interacts with the mitochondria by opening the potassium channels. This causes an influx of calcium ions to be released into the cytoplasm of the cells. As a result, programmed cell death, known as apoptosis, occurs.
In other words: Solanine is a type of chemical that can mess with the activity of cell membranes and block a certain enzyme. It also interacts with parts of our cells called mitochondria by opening up pathways for potassium. This causes a rush of calcium particles to be released inside the cells. As a result, cells are programmed to die, a process also known as apoptosis
(E)-2-Hexenal
(E,E)-2,4-Nonadienal
(Z)-3-Hexenyl Benzoate
1-Acetyl-3-Methyl-2-Pyrazolin-5-one
2,4-Heptadienal
2-Hexynol
3-Ethylbenzaldehyde
4-Methyl-1-Hexanol
Belladonnine
Benzyl Salicylate
Cistus Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexylmethane
Decanal
Digitoxigenin
Dodecanoic Acid
Eugenol
Heneicosane
Heptylidene Acetaldehyde
Irisone
Isovaleraldehyde
Linoleic Acid
Methyl Hexanoate
Methyl Stearate
Morphine
Nonadecane
Octadecanal
Octanoic Acid
Pentadecanal
Quercetin
S-Origanol
Taxol
Tetradecanal
Tropic Acid
α-Heptenal
β-Cyclohomocitral
δ-Cadinene
(E)-2-Hexenol
(E,Z)-2,4-Decadienal
(Z)-Geraniol
1-Hexanol
2,4-Nonadienal
2-Methyl-6-Methylene-1,7-Octadien-3-one
3-Methylbenzaldehyde
6,7-Dihydroxy-8-methoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one
Benzaldehyde
Boronia Butenal
Citral
Cymol
Decanoic Acid
Dihydro-ar-ionene
Ebal
Farnesene
Heptadecanal
Hexadecanal
Isoamyl Salicylate
Jasmone
Linolenic Acid
Methyl Linoleate
Methyl Tetradecanoate
Muscalure
Nonadecene
Octadecane
Octenal
Phytone
Safranal
Styrene
Terpenol
Tetradecanoic Acid
Tropine
α-Methylbutanol
β-Hexylacrolein
(E)-3-Hexenol
(E,Z)-2,4-Heptadienal
(Z)-Ocimene
2-(2-Pentenyl)furan
2,6-Nonadienal
2-Octenol
3-Methyleicosane
Amyl Furan
Benzeneacetaldehyde
Butylacetone
Cuscohygrine
Damascenone
Decenal
Docosane
Eicosane
Fucoserratene
Heptanal
Hexadecanoic Acid
Isoheneicosane
Kaempferol
Linolenic Acid Ethyl Ester
Methyl Linolenate
Methylcyclohexane
Mushroom Alcohol
Nonanal
Octadienal
Oxophorone
Propionphenone
Scopoletin
Sulcatone
Terpilene
Toluene
Vertenex
α-Pentanal
β-Ionone
(E)-Geraniol
(E,Z)-3,5-Octadien-2-one
1,2,5,5-Tetramethyl-1,3-Cyclopentadiene
2-(4-Methylcyclohexylidene)-1-Propanol
2-Hexenal
3,5-Octadienone
4-Heptenal
Apoatropine
Benzyl Benzoate
Cinchonine
Cyclocitral
Decadienal
Delfone
Dodecanal
Ethylvinylcarbinol
Geranylacetone
Heptane
Hexanal
Isopentanol
Linalool
Methyl 8-(2-furyl) Octanoate
Methyl Palmitate
Methyloleate
Neophytadiene
Nonanoic Acid
Octanedione
Papaverine
Pseudopinene
Sorbaldehyde
Sweet Clover
Terpinolene
Tricosane
α-Ethylfuran
α-Pinene
β-Ocimene
General Information
General Information
Parts of Plant: All parts, especially the roots and berries.
Contact Hazard: If someone comes in contact with leaves, they could develop a rash. Contact with fruit, leaves, or roots in open wound may result in fatality.
Animals Affected: Pets
*Birds, cattle, goats, horses, pigs, rabbits, and sheep are unaffected.
Medicinal Value
Medicinal Value
General Information
General Information
Parts of Plant: All parts
Properties: Analgesic, anesthetic, anticholinergic, anticonvulsant, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, calmative, diaphoretic, diuretic, hallucinogenic, hydriatic, mydriatic, narcotic, sedative.
Components: Atropine, Scopolamine
Antidote: Chemical warfare agents, chloroform poisoning, insect poisons, mushroom/toadstool poisoning, opium poisoning, organophosphate poisoning.
Preparation: Over-the-counter medication
Historical Uses
Historical Uses
Current Uses
Current Uses
Treatments
Treatments
Asthma
Bowel Obstruction
Bronchial Spasms
Colds
Eyes: Woman would dilate pupils.
Hay Fever
Histaminic Reactions
Huntington's Disease
Indigestion
Joint Pain
Motion Sickness
Muscles: Plant used as a muscle relaxer.
Nerve Pain
Pain: Plant has been used as a pain reliever.
Parkinson's Disease
Peptic Ulcers
Pneumonia
Scarlet Fever
Weakness
Location
Location
Europe: Women would dilate pupils with atropine.
Claimed Treatments
Claimed Treatments
Acid Reflux: Scopolamine used to help ease acid reflux.
Asthma: Reduces muscle contractions.
Back Pain: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Bradycardia: Atropine
Cardiac Arrest
Chronic Inflammation
Climacteric Complaints
Colds: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Colic
Cough: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Cycloplegia: Atropine
Diverticulitis: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Earache: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Excessive Urination: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Eyes: Optometrists will use belladonna to dilate pupils of patients for examination.
Fever: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Flu: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Gastrointestinal Spasms
Gout: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Headaches
Heart Rate: Scopolamine used to control heart rate.
Inflammation: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Joint Pain: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Menstruation
Motion Sickness: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Muscles: Scopolamine used to relax muscles.
Nausea: Scopolamine used to help ease nausea.
Neuralgia
Parkinson's Disease: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Pink Eye: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Rheumatism
Sciatica
Sore Throat: Over-the-counter medication (NOT FDA APPROVED)
Spastic Colon: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Stomach Ulcers: Combined with Phenobarbital or other medications.
Sunstroke
Whooping Cough: Reduces muscle contractions.
Location
Location
North America: Atropine used to dilate pupils for eye examinations. Atropine and scopolamine also been used to treat bradycardia and decrease salivation during surgeries.
Edibility
Edibility
Parts of Plant: None known
Nutrients:
Minerals: Calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, zinc.
Taste: Sweet
WARNING: !INEDIBLE! !DO NOT CONSUME!
Historical Uses
Historical Uses
Current Uses
Current Uses
Preparation Methods
Preparation Methods
None Known
Preparation Methods
Preparation Methods
None Known
General Facts
General Facts
Plant Facts
Plant Facts
Illustration of Belladonna by D.A. Wilkerson, M.S.
Family: Solanaceae (Nightshade Family)
Genus: Atropa
Other Names: Beautiful Death, Black Cherry, Bun, Bunika, Cro. Velebilje, Deadly Nightshade, Death Cherries, Devil's Berries, Devil's Cherries, Devil's Herb, Divale, Dwale, Dwayberry, Grey Morel, Naughty Man's Cherries, Poison Black Cherry
Synonyms: A. baetica, A. borealis, A. caucasica, A, digitaloides, A. lethalis, A. lutea (subspecies), A. mediterranea, A. paschkewiczii, A. trichotoma
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Bloom Colours: Greenish-purple, Dark Purple
Bloom Time: June - September
Type: Perennial
Height: 3 - 5 feet (0.9 - 1.5 meters)
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Habitat: Dumps, hedges, old ruins, quarries, shaded trees, thickets, wooded hills, woods.
Origin: Africa (north and west), Asia, and Europe
States: CA, MI, NY, OR, WA
Provinces: ON
Related Species
Related Species
Other Species
Other Species
Atropa acuminata
Atropa pallidiflora
Atropa herbacea
Atropa trichotoma
Atropa indobelladonna
Atropa umbellata
Atropa komarovii
Atropa virgata
Family Connection
Family Connection
Sources
Sources
Toxicity Section
Toxicity Section
Alsaedi, N. J., Jawad, L. K., & Mahdi, S. A. (2023). Medicinal importance of Atropa belladonna plant (tropane alkaloids). Kirkuk University Journal For Agricultural Sciences, 14(3), 88-97. Retrieved from https://www.iasj.net/iasj/download/3d3fac6441cd7821
Berdai, M. A., Labib, S., Chetouani, K., & Harandou, M. (2012). Atropa belladonna intoxication: a case report. The Pan African medical journal, 11, 72. From https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361210/
BIO203. (n.d.). Deadly Nightshade. From http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2013/lambert_made/interactions.htm
Demirhan, A., Tekelioğlu, Ü. Y., Yıldız, İ., Korkmaz, T., Bilgi, M., Akkaya, A., & Koçoğlu, H. (2013). Anticholinergic Toxic Syndrome Caused by Atropa Belladonna Fruit (Deadly Nightshade): A Case Report. Turkish journal of anaesthesiology and reanimation, 41(6), 226–228. https://doi.org/10.5152/TJAR.2013.43
DrugBank. (2017). Belladonna. From https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB13913
Fletcher, J. (2017). Uses and risks of belladonna. MedicalNewsToday. From https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318180
Hayes, L., Canner, D., Berchansky, A., & Harel, H. (n.d.). Atropine. Proteopedia. From https://proteopedia.org/wiki/index.php/Atropine
Hodgson, E. (2012). Toxicology and Human Environments. Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science. From https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/atropa-belladonna
Largo, M. (2014). The Big, Bad Book of Botany: The World's Most Fascinating Flora. HarperCollins Publishers. (pp.38-40)
Lerner, C. (1990). Dumb Cane and Daffodils: Poisonous Plants in the House and Garden. South China Printing Company. (pp. 14)
Lust, J. (1974). The Herb Book. Bantam Books. (pp. 114)
Malik, M., Hussain, S., Sajjad, N., Nazir, S., Gondal, M. U., & Arshad, J. (2021). Physicochemical analysis, qualitative and quantitative investigation of atropine in medicinal plant Atropa belladonna. EJPMR, 8(5), 149-157. From https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Naila-Sajjad/publication/351265689_PHYSICOCHEMICAL_ANALYSIS_QUALITATIVE_AND_QUANTITATIVE_INVESTIGATION_OF_ATROPINE_IN_MEDICINAL_PLANT_ATROPA_BELLADONNA/links/608e3b44299bf1ad8d6fb362/PHYSICOCHEMICAL-ANALYSIS-QUALITATIVE-AND-QUANTITATIVE-INVESTIGATION-OF-ATROPINE-IN-MEDICINAL-PLANT-ATROPA-BELLADONNA.pdf
Maurya, V. K., Kumar, S., Kabir, R., Shrivastava, G., Shanker, K., Nayak, D., ... & Saxena, S. K. (2020). Dark classics in chemical neuroscience: an evidence-based systematic review of belladonna. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 11(23), 3937-3954. From https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00413?casa_token=xerJDT5JHeMAAAAA:_KfIyRGMrn8e_t4AA3hw3WGjMW7jYutFfTcIrItrMvird66b3nrTtD5bu6t8wh4JIYTqzBJEZ8N02cY-
Missouri Botanical Garden. (n.d.). Atropa Belladonna. From https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=287159
Morris. S. (2017). Belladonna: Remedy with a Dark Past. Healthline. From https://www.healthline.com/health/belladonna-dark-past#Is-It-Safe-to-Take-Belladonna?
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2023). PubChem Compound LCSS for CID 4133, Methyl Salicylate. From https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Methyl-Salicylate#datasheet=LCSS.
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2023). PubChem Compound LCSS for CID 22311, Limonene. From https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Limonene#datasheet=LCSS.
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2022). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 154417, Hyoscyamine. From https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Hyoscyamine.
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2022). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 174174, Atropine. From https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Atropine.
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2022). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 3000322, Scopolamine. From https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Hyoscine.
NC State Extension. (n.d.). Atropa bella-donna. North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox. From https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/atropa-bella-donna/
Öz, M., Fidan, M. S., Baltaci, C., Ücüncü, O., & Karatas, S. M. (2021). Determination of antimicrobial and antioxidant activities and chemical components of volatile oils of Atropa belladonna L. growing in Turkey. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 24(5), 1072-1086.
Passos, I. D., Mironidou-Tzouveleki, M. (2016). Atropa belladonna. Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse. From https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/atropa-belladonna
Plants For A Future. (n.d.). Atropa bella-donna - L. From https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Atropa+bella-donna
RxWiki. (n.d.). Hyoscyamine. From https://www.rxwiki.com/hyoscyamine
Southgate, H. J., Egerton, M., & Dauncey, E. A. (2000). Lessons to be learned: a case study approach: Unseasonal severe poisoning of two adults by deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna). The Journal of the Royal Society for the promotion of Health, 120(2), 127-130. From https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/146642400012000212?casa_token=KJdg-85l3OgAAAAA:DxJE3LVLSFUPaW3zki2Y0eL4XloosmseDJD7jvjezzlwVy9fRtU0RqtFzeN50gP08hLwlFYJHoXXn6A
Stewart, A. (2009). Wicked Plants: The Weed that Killed Lincoln's Mother & Other Botanical Atrocities. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. (pp. 31-33)
Strano-Rossi, S., Mestria, S., Bolino, G., Polacco, M., Grassi, S., & Oliva, A. (2021). Scopolamine fatal outcome in an inmate after buscopan® smoking. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 135(4), 1455-1460. From https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33890166/
Tello, C. (2021). Belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) Poisoning & Historical Uses. SelfDecode. From https://supplements.selfdecode.com/blog/belladonna-deadly-nightshade/
The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products. (1998). Committee for Veterinary Medicinal Products Atropa Belladonna Summary Report. From https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/mrl-report/atropa-belladonna-summary-report-committee-veterinary-medicinal-products_en.pdf
U.S. Forest Service. (n.d.). The Powerful Solanaceae: Belladonna. USDA. From https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/Mind_and_Spirit/belladonna.shtml
Wag!. (n.d.) Belladonna Poisoning in Dogs. From https://wagwalking.com/condition/belladonna-poisoning
WebMD Editorial Contributers. (2022). Are There Health Benefits to Taking Limonene? WebMD. From https://www.webmd.com/diet/health-benefits-limonene
Woodland Trust (n.d.). Deadly Nightshade. From https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/plants/wild-flowers/deadly-nightshade/
Xia, K., Liu, X., Zhang, Q., Qiang, W., Guo, J., Lan, X., Chen, M., & Liao, Z. (2016). Promoting scopolamine biosynthesis in transgenic Atropa belladonna plants with pmt and h6h overexpression under field conditions. Plant physiology and biochemistry : PPB, 106, 46–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.04.034
Medicinal Value Section
Medicinal Value Section
Alsaedi, N. J., Jawad, L. K., & Mahdi, S. A. (2023). Medicinal importance of Atropa belladonna plant (tropane alkaloids). Kirkuk University Journal For Agricultural Sciences, 14(3), 88-97. Retrieved from https://www.iasj.net/iasj/download/3d3fac6441cd7821
Fletcher, J. (2017). Uses and risks of belladonna. MedicalNewsToday. From https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318180
Largo, M. (2014). The Big, Bad Book of Botany: The World's Most Fascinating Flora. HarperCollins Publishers. (pp.38-40)
Lust, J. (1974). The Herb Book. Bantam Books. (pp. 114)
Malik, M., Hussain, S., Sajjad, N., Nazir, S., Gondal, M. U., & Arshad, J. (2021). Physicochemical analysis, qualitative and quantitative investigation of atropine in medicinal plant Atropa belladonna. EJPMR, 8(5), 149-157. From https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Naila-Sajjad/publication/351265689_PHYSICOCHEMICAL_ANALYSIS_QUALITATIVE_AND_QUANTITATIVE_INVESTIGATION_OF_ATROPINE_IN_MEDICINAL_PLANT_ATROPA_BELLADONNA/links/608e3b44299bf1ad8d6fb362/PHYSICOCHEMICAL-ANALYSIS-QUALITATIVE-AND-QUANTITATIVE-INVESTIGATION-OF-ATROPINE-IN-MEDICINAL-PLANT-ATROPA-BELLADONNA.pdf
Maurya, V. K., Kumar, S., Kabir, R., Shrivastava, G., Shanker, K., Nayak, D., ... & Saxena, S. K. (2020). Dark classics in chemical neuroscience: an evidence-based systematic review of belladonna. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 11(23), 3937-3954. From https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00413?casa_token=xerJDT5JHeMAAAAA:_KfIyRGMrn8e_t4AA3hw3WGjMW7jYutFfTcIrItrMvird66b3nrTtD5bu6t8wh4JIYTqzBJEZ8N02cY-
Missouri Botanical Garden. (n.d.). Atropa Belladonna. From https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=287159
Morris. S. (2017). Belladonna: Remedy with a Dark Past. Healthline. From https://www.healthline.com/health/belladonna-dark-past#Is-It-Safe-to-Take-Belladonna?
NC State Extension. (n.d.). Atropa bella-donna. North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox. From https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/atropa-bella-donna/
Plants For A Future. (n.d.). Atropa bella-donna - L. From https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Atropa+bella-donna
Stewart, A. (2009). Wicked Plants: The Weed that Killed Lincoln's Mother & Other Botanical Atrocities. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. (pp. 31-33)
Tello, C. (2021). Belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) Poisoning & Historical Uses. SelfDecode. https://supplements.selfdecode.com/blog/belladonna-deadly-nightshade/
U.S. Forest Service. (n.d.). The Powerful Solanaceae: Belladonna. USDA. From https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/Mind_and_Spirit/belladonna.shtml
Woodland Trust (n.d.). Deadly Nightshade. From https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/plants/wild-flowers/deadly-nightshade/
Edibility Section
Edibility Section
Berdai, M. A., Labib, S., Chetouani, K., & Harandou, M. (2012). Atropa belladonna intoxication: a case report. The Pan African medical journal, 11, 72. From https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361210/
Malik, M., Hussain, S., Sajjad, N., Nazir, S., Gondal, M. U., & Arshad, J. (2021). Physicochemical analysis, qualitative and quantitative investigation of atropine in medicinal plant Atropa belladonna. EJPMR, 8(5), 149-157. From https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Naila-Sajjad/publication/351265689_PHYSICOCHEMICAL_ANALYSIS_QUALITATIVE_AND_QUANTITATIVE_INVESTIGATION_OF_ATROPINE_IN_MEDICINAL_PLANT_ATROPA_BELLADONNA/links/608e3b44299bf1ad8d6fb362/PHYSICOCHEMICAL-ANALYSIS-QUALITATIVE-AND-QUANTITATIVE-INVESTIGATION-OF-ATROPINE-IN-MEDICINAL-PLANT-ATROPA-BELLADONNA.pdf
Missouri Botanical Garden. (n.d.). Atropa Belladonna. From https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=287159
U.S. Forest Service. (n.d.). The Powerful Solanaceae: Belladonna. USDA. From https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/Mind_and_Spirit/belladonna.shtml
General Facts Section
General Facts Section
Berdai, M. A., Labib, S., Chetouani, K., & Harandou, M. (2012). Atropa belladonna intoxication: a case report. The Pan African medical journal, 11, 72. From https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361210/
Fletcher, J. (2017). Uses and risks of belladonna. MedicalNewsToday. From https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318180
Largo, M. (2014). The Big, Bad Book of Botany: The World's Most Fascinating Flora. HarperCollins Publishers. (pp.38-40)
Lerner, C. (1990). Dumb Cane and Daffodils: Poisonous Plants in the House and Garden. South China Printing Company. (pp. 14)
Lust, J. (1974). The Herb Book. Bantam Books. (pp. 114)
Maurya, V. K., Kumar, S., Kabir, R., Shrivastava, G., Shanker, K., Nayak, D., ... & Saxena, S. K. (2020). Dark classics in chemical neuroscience: an evidence-based systematic review of belladonna. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 11(23), 3937-3954. From https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00413?casa_token=xerJDT5JHeMAAAAA:_KfIyRGMrn8e_t4AA3hw3WGjMW7jYutFfTcIrItrMvird66b3nrTtD5bu6t8wh4JIYTqzBJEZ8N02cY-
Missouri Botanical Garden. (n.d.). Atropa Belladonna. From https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=287159
NC State Extension. (n.d.). Atropa bella-donna. North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox. From https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/atropa-bella-donna/
Plants For A Future. (n.d.). Atropa bella-donna - L. From https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Atropa+bella-donna
Stewart, A. (2009). Wicked Plants: The Weed that Killed Lincoln's Mother & Other Botanical Atrocities. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. (pp. 31-33)
Woodland Trust (n.d.). Deadly Nightshade. From https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/plants/wild-flowers/deadly-nightshade/
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