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victims (Fischer, Vidmar, & Ellis, 1993), carefully monitoring their compliance and punishing them for any “infractions” of the imposed rules. Such attention to detail contradicts the notion that perpetrators “lost” control or that their abusive conduct is the result of poor impulse control. Interviews with perpetrators reveal that when using both overt and subtle forms of abuse, perpetrators know what they want from victims (Ganley, 1995). Perpetrators use varying combinations of physical force and/or threats of harm and intimidating acts to instill fear in victims. At times they will use other kinds of manipulations through gifts, promises, and indulgences. Regardless of the tactic chosen, the perpetrators’ intent is to get something from the victims, to establish domination over them, or to punish them. Perpetrators selectively choose tactics that work to control their victims. (Ganley, 1981; Serum, 1982; Pence & Paymar, 1993). See Appendix B for Power and Control Wheel. CHAPTER 1 24 II. CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE A. Domestic Violence: Learned Behavior Domestic violence is behavior learned through observation and reinforcement. Like other forms of aggression, domestic violence is not caused by genetics or illness. People are not born perpetrators and for the most part there is no disease or illness that turns a non-abusive person into an abuser. Domestic violence is a behavior acquired over time through multiple observations and interactions with individuals and institutions (Bandura, 1979; Dutton, D., 1988). The behaviors, as well as the perpetrator’s internal “rules and regulations” about when, where, against whom, how, and by whom domestic violence is to be used, are learned. Domestic violence and the beliefs that support it are learned through direct observation (e.g., the male child witnessing the abuse of his mother by his father or from the proliferation of images of violence against women in the media). It is also learned through the reinforcement of the perpetrators’ experiences (e.g., perpetrators receiving peer support or not being held responsible, arrested, prosecuted, or sentenced appropriately for their violence). Domestic violence is observed and reinforced not only in the family but also in society. It is overtly and covertly reinforced by society’s major institutions: familial, social, legal, religious, educational, mental health, medical, entertainment, and the media (Bandura, 1977; Dutton, D. 1988; Ganley, 1989; Dobash & Dobash, 1979). These social institutions advocate the use of violence as legitimate means of controlling family members (e.g., religious beliefs/ positions that state that a woman should submit to the will of her husband, laws that do not consider violence against intimates a crime, medical and mental health systems that blame victims for “provoking” the violence). These practices reinforce the use of violence to control intimates by failing to hold perpetrators responsible for their actions and by failing to protect victims. (See Jones (1994) for a more complete discussion of social supports for battering. ) Domestic violence is repeated because it works and thus the pattern of behavior is reinforced. The use of the abusive conduct allows the perpetrator to gain control of the victim through fear and violence. Gaining the victim’s compliance, even temporarily, provides partial reinforcement for the perpetrator’s use of abusive tactics. Often the battering behavior is also reinforced by the responses of peers, family authorities, and bystanders. More importantly, the perpetrator is able to reinforce his own abusive behavior. He is able to justify his actions to himself because of the socially sanctioned belief that men have the right to control women in relationships and have the right to use force to ensure that control. B. Domestic Violence and Gender Domestic violence is a gender-specific behavior which is socially and historically constructed. Men are socialized to take control and to use physical force when necessary to maintain dominance. While most victims of male violence are other men, the majority of victims of domestic violence are female, although female-tomale, male-to-male (gay), and female-tofemale (lesbian) violence also occurs in intimate relationships. Male violence against women in intimate relationships is a social
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