Factors Influencing Speech & Language Development in Bilinguals

Below are lists of general factors frequently discussed in research as influential to the bilingual child's language development and socialization. The factors described below include environmental, cultural, and maturational factors related to a child's speech and language development.

Age and Timing of Exposure, and Individual Characteristics

The notion of a critical period for second language acquisition is a hotly contested subject. The age of exposure to a second language has been thought to impact bilingual development and competency ((Penfield and Roberts, 1959; Lenneberg, 1967; Johnson & Newport, 1989; Thompson, 1991; (Flege et al., 1999; Weber-Fox & Neville, 1999; McDonald, 2000). However, Hakuta et al. (2003) argue that the data are contentious because of the predicament of parsing out the effects of age of initial exposure, duration of exposure, and social and linguistic backgrounds of the participants (see the analysis and critique of Johnson & Newport’s study in Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994, as cited in Hakuta et al., 2003). In a large-scale study conducted by Hartshorne et al. in 2018, no evidence was found to support the Johnson & Newport 1989 study claiming that ultimate attainment reaches a floor around puberty. In a 2010 review of literature on age-related L2 acquisition, Muñoz & Singleton underscore the importance of bringing contextual factors to the fore of the conversation of L2 learning capacity.

Timing factors influencing bilingual development and the retention of L1 skills include identifying when the two languages are introduced. For example, the introduction of L2 with either simultaneous or sequential exposure can impact language development. Also, differences in language acquisition may be evident if L1 begins at birth and L2 exposure begins in preschool versus L1 exposure at birth and first L2 exposure beginning in high school (Hartshorne et al., 2018).

Cognitive factors and personality characteristics unique to the child may influence bilingual language development. Attention, memory, language abilities, auditory processing and discrimination, motivation, and self-identity are examples of factors within the child that influence language development (Winsler et al., 2014; Hayakawa et al., 2020)

Linguistic Properties, Language Contexts, Opportunities, and Use

The extent to which L1 and L2 are similar or different influences bilingual language development in children. Linguistic similarities across bilinguals' two languages have been shown to facilitate lexical development (Bosch & Ramon-Casas, 2014; Gampe et al., 2021). It is also important to consider the language context of the child and their family; this refers to the environments where the child experiences the languages (i.e., home, school, community gatherings). Certain factors, like media input, stronger motivation to learn L2, or years of education in L2 can influence acquisition (Flege et al., 1999; Bohman et al., 2010). Furthermore, the level of L2 proficiency of family members is significantly linked to overall L2 attainment (Jia et al., 2002). Input opportunities describe the content, quantity, and quality of shared (i.e., child conversing with parent) or observed (i.e., a child watching and listening to adult conversations) language interactions that the child experiences in their language contexts. Evaluating language content involves looking at specific interactions to understand the information conveyed during the interaction. Language quantity is the amount of language exposed to the child in all environments. Quality of language is described as evaluating the accuracy and complexity of utterances shared with the child or observed in other conversational interactions. Language use for personal, social, academic, and employment purposes combined with language modalities (i.e., spoken and written) is another essential factor in bilingual language development. A 2003 longitudinal study by Jia & Aaronson showed that leisure reading was a good indicator of the level of intrinsic interest in L2 reading.

Parental Education and Economic Resources

Factors including parent education levels and parental attitudes toward education may influence language development in their children. Research has suggested higher parental education levels and parental knowledge of school function as vital factors in fostering language and academic growth in bilingual children (Golberg et al., 2008; Pradis, 2011). Many factors exist surrounding living in poverty or lower socioeconomic status (SES), often with the family involved in dealing with significant stressors that could contribute to potential risks in a child's development (Cobo-Lewis et al., 2002; Hoff, 2003). Ensuring the availability of safe housing, having the resources to provide food and nourishment, having access to health care services, and having enough financial security to pay monthly bills, are only a few examples of the economic factors with which families may be struggling. As clinicians, it is essential to be sensitive to the family's resources and needs. Equally important is to be knowledgeable about community resources available to individuals and families in need. For example, Community Action Agencies provide information about emergency financial services available within a community, including emergency food boxes, energy assistance, and rent assistance. To locate a Community Action Agency by state or county, visit Community Action Partnership: Find a CAA.

Role of the Community, Culture, and Attitudes Toward Bilingualism

The role of the community and the cultural value placed on bilingualism are important factors to consider when working with a bilingual family. Geography, parental attitudes toward bilingualism, and community participation can inform intervention (Gathercole & Thomas, 2007). Cultural values and beliefs regarding L1 and L2, child-rearing practices, the value placed on the individual vs. the collective group, and communication styles within the culture, may also influence the bilingual child's language development (Hakuta & D'Andrea, 1992; Luo & Wiseman, 2000; Phinney et al., 2001).

It is good practice to consider the available support systems for bilingual families available within the community. Examples of community supports might include:

Bilingual professionals in medical, social, and educational services
Head Start programs
Availability of bilingual literature at local libraries
Bilingual religious organizations and other community networks

Original Contributor: Jerae Bjelland, 2009

Updated February 2022

Resources & References

Bohman, T. M., Bedore, L. M., Peña, E. D., Mendez-Perez, A., & Gillam, R. B. (2010). What you hear and what you say: Language performance in Spanish English bilinguals. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13(3), 325–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050903342019

Bosch, L., & Ramon-Casas, M. (2014). First translation equivalents in bilingual toddlers’ expressive vocabulary. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(4), 317–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414532559

Cobo-Lewis, A. B., Pearson, B. Z., Eilers, R. E., & Umbel, V. C. (2002). Effects of bilingualism and bilingual education on oral and written English skills: A multifactor study of standardized test outcomes. In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 64–97). essay, Multilingual Matters.

Flege, J. E., MacKay, I. R., & Meador, D. (1999). Native Italian speakers’ perception and production of English vowels. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 106(5), 2973–2987. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.428116

Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41(1), 78–104. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1999.2638

Gampe, A., Quick, A. E., & Daum, M. M. (2021). Does linguistic similarity affect early simultaneous bilingual language acquisition? Journal of Language Contact, 13(3), 482–500. https://doi.org/10.1163/19552629-13030001

Gathercole, V. C. M., & Thomas, E. M. (2007). Factors contributing to language transmission in bilingual families: The core study - adult interviews. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Language Transmission in Bilingual Families in Wales. (pp. 59–182). Bangor: University of Wales.

Golberg, H., Paradis, J., & Crago, M. (2008). Lexical acquisition over time in minority first language children learning English as a second language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29(1), 41–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/s014271640808003x

Hakuta, K., Bialystok, E., & Wiley, E. (2003). Critical evidence. Psychological Science, 14(1), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.01415

Hakuta, K., & D'Andrea, D. (1992). Some properties of bilingual maintenance and loss in Mexican background high-school students. Applied Linguistics, 13(1), 72–99. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/13.1.72

Hartshorne, J. K., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Pinker, S. (2018). A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition, 177, 263–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.007

Hayakawa, S., Bartolotti, J., & Marian, V. (2020). Native language similarity during foreign language learning: Effects of cognitive strategies and affective states. Applied Linguistics, 42(3), 514–540. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amaa042

Hoff, E. (2003). Causes and consequences of SES-related differences in parent-to-child speech. In M. H. Bornstein & R. H. Bradley (Eds.), Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development (pp. 147–160). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Jia, G., Aaronson, D., & Wu, Y. (2002). Long-term language attainment of bilingual immigrants: Predictive variables and language group differences. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23(4), 599–621. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0142716402004058

Jia, G., & Aaronson, D. (2003). A longitudinal study of Chinese children and adolescents learning English in the United States. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24(1), 131–161. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0142716403000079

Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0

Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. Wiley.

Luo, S.-H., & Wiseman, R. L. (2000). Ethnic language maintenance among Chinese immigrant children in the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24(3), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0147-1767(00)00003-1

McDonald, J. L. (2000). Grammaticality judgments in a second language: Influences of age of acquisition and native language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21(3), 395–423. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0142716400003064

Muñoz, C., & Singleton, D. (2010). A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment. Language Teaching, 44(1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444810000327

Paradis, J. (2011). Individual differences in child English second language acquisition. Internal and External Factors in Child Second Language Acquisition, 1(3), 213–237. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.1.3.01par

Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and Brain Mechanisms. Princeton University Press.

Phinney, J. S., Romero, I., Nava, M., & Huang, D. (2001). The role of language, parents, and peers in ethnic identity among adolescents in immigrant families. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(2), 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1010389607319

Thompson, I. (1991). Foreign accents revisited: The English pronunciation of Russian immigrants. Language Learning, 41(2), 177–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1991.tb00683.x

Weber-Fox, C. M., & Neville, H. J. (1999). Functional neural subsystems are differentially affected by delays in second language immersion: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilinguals. In D. Birdsong (Ed.), Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis (pp. 23–38). essay, Erlbaum Associates.

Winsler, A., Kim, Y. K., & Richard, E. R. (2014). Socio-emotional skills, behavior problems, and Spanish competence predict the acquisition of English among English language learners in poverty. Developmental Psychology, 50(9), 2242–2254. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037161

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Factors Influencing Speech & Language Development in Bilinguals