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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
Comprises of 5 environmental system that an individual interacts with:
- Individual - one's sex, age, health etc
- Microsystem - direct interactions to individual eg. family, peers etc
- Mesosystem - interactions between microsystems
- Exosystem - experiences in settings that child does not have active role of influence
- Macrosystem - broader culture individual lives in
- Chronosystem - sociohistorical conditions of student's development
Psychosocial Development of Learners
Psychosocial Development of Learners
Erik Erikson's Stages of Development
*Each stage is characterised by psychosocial crisis of two conflicting forces.
- Infancy (Birth - 1 y.o) - Trust Vs Mistrust
- Toddlerhood (1 - 3 y.o) - Autonomy Vs Shame & Doubt
- Early Childhood (3 - 6 y.o) - Initiative Vs Guilt
- Middle & Late childhood (6 - 12 y.o) - Industry Vs Inferiority
- Adolescence (12 - 22 y.o) - Identity Vs Role Confusion
- Early Adulthood (22 - 34 y.o) - Intimacy Vs Isolation
- Middle Adulthood (34 - 60 y.o) - Generativity Vs Stagnation
- Late Adulthood (60 y.o - death) - Ego Integrity Vs Despair
Identity Status
Identity Status
James Marcia's Identity Status
- Identity Diffusion – does not have sense of direction
- Identity Foreclosure – conform to expectations of others regarding their future
- Identity Moratorium – crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices
- Identity Achievement – post crisis, and has secure sense of identity
Self-Concept & Self-Esteem
Self-Concept & Self-Esteem
Self concept (Cognitive) - individual's knowledge and beliefs about themselves
- Determines who and what individual is, and what individual thinks he can do and become (Burns, 1982)
Self-Esteem (Affective) - emotional response to self-concept. High self-esteem refers to the belief that one is inherently worthy.
- A gauge on how well a person is doing in his/her interpersonal relationships (Leary, 1999)
PYGMALION EFFECT
- Self-fulfilling prophesy ie. expecting something to happen can in fact make it occur.
- People internalize their positive labels, and those with positive labels succeed accordingly.
- Teacher-expectancy effects: an experiment by Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) involved telling school teachers that some students in their class demonstrated remarkable potential for academic growth. 8 months later, these students showed greater gains in IQ than peers in school. However, these students were actually randomly selected!
Moral Development
Moral Development
Putting the faces to the names
Putting the faces to the names
Jean Piaget
Piaget found that children ideas regrading rules, moral judgements and punishment tend to change as they got older.
2. Autonomous Morality (Moral Relativism) for > 10 y.o. Morality tends towards obeying own rules.Children recognise there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality depends more on intentions than on deeds or consequence.Punishment viewed primarily as a way to put things right and not make guilty suffer
Piaget, J. (1932). The moral development of the child. Kegan Paul, London.
Piaget's model:
1. Heteronomous Morality (Moral Realism) for < 10 y.o. - Morality externally imposed. Morality = obeying other people's rules, and severity is implied from consequence rather than motives. Punishment viewed as a way to make the guilty suffer.2. Autonomous Morality (Moral Relativism) for > 10 y.o. Morality tends towards obeying own rules.Children recognise there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality depends more on intentions than on deeds or consequence.Punishment viewed primarily as a way to put things right and not make guilty suffer
Piaget, J. (1932). The moral development of the child. Kegan Paul, London.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Kohlberg's model:
Level 1 - Pre-conventional moralityMoral code shaped by standards of adults and the consequences of violating their rules.
Level 2 - Conventional Morality Internalize moral standards of valued adult role modelsAuthority is not questioned, and reasoning is based on norms of groups to which person belongs.
Level 3 - Post-conventional moralityIndividual judgement based on self-selected principles & reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development: Vol. 2. The psychology of moral development: Moral stages, their nature and validity.
Carol Gilligan
Gilligan's was indignant that psychology of Freud and Erickson is largely male-centered, and hence does not account for one half of the human population.
Although a student of Kohlberg, she disagreed with her mentors's model and suggests the following instead. The transitions between the stages are fuelled by changes in the sense of self rather than changes in cognitive capability.
Level 2: Other-OrientedFocus is on need of others. The self is associated with feminine goodness, maternal morality of self-sacrifice. Transition to Level 3 occurs when one recognise that self cannot be completely left out.
Level 3: Universal Oriented Focus is on universal obligation of caring. Here, care is a self-chosen principle that condemns exploitation, violence, and neglect and demands active response to suffering. Caring for oneself and others is seen as intertwined because the self and others are recognized as interdependent. Thus, all acts of caring are seen as beneficial to both self and others.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Harvard University Press.
Although a student of Kohlberg, she disagreed with her mentors's model and suggests the following instead. The transitions between the stages are fuelled by changes in the sense of self rather than changes in cognitive capability.
Gilligan's Model:
Level 1: Self-OrientedFocus on needs of self. Transition to Level 2 occurs when one recognises conflict between one's own needs and the needs of others.Level 2: Other-OrientedFocus is on need of others. The self is associated with feminine goodness, maternal morality of self-sacrifice. Transition to Level 3 occurs when one recognise that self cannot be completely left out.
Level 3: Universal Oriented Focus is on universal obligation of caring. Here, care is a self-chosen principle that condemns exploitation, violence, and neglect and demands active response to suffering. Caring for oneself and others is seen as intertwined because the self and others are recognized as interdependent. Thus, all acts of caring are seen as beneficial to both self and others.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Harvard University Press.
Thomas Lickona
Lickona's Model:
Stage 0 (preschool): Egocentric ReasoningFocus on getting one's own wayStage 1 (kindergarten): Unquestioned ObedienceFocus on doing what one is told
Stage 2 (early primary school): What's in it for me (fairness)Focus on looking out for self and reciprocating fairness if shown fairness
Stage 3 (late primary to early teens): Interpersonal conformityFocus on being nice and living up to expectations of others.
Stage 4 (late teens): Responsibility to the systemFocus on fulfilling responsibilities of social/value system that one is part of Stage 5 (young adulthood): Principled Conscience Respect rights and dignity of every individual
Lickona, T. (1976). Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues.
Socio-emotional Development
Socio-emotional Development
SOCIAL - Selman's Perspective Taking Theory
SOCIAL - Selman's Perspective Taking Theory
Level 0. Egocentric role taking - child unable to distinguish between own perspective and other's perspective.
Level 1. Subjective role taking - children recognise that despite being in the same situation, they and others have access to different information and hence perspectives.
Level 2. Self reflective role taking - Child's differentiation ability matures so child understand people can differ in social perspective because of their differing values.
Level 3. Mutual role taking - Child can differentiate own perspective from the average member of the group.
Level 4. Societal role taking - adolescent now considers others' perspectives with reference to the social environment and culture the other person comes from.
EMOTIONAL - Salovey and Mayer Emotional Intelligence Theory
EMOTIONAL - Salovey and Mayer Emotional Intelligence Theory
Model proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process their own emotions and relate to the emotions of others.
1. Perceiving emotions - ability to detect and decipher emotions from body language, tone, pictures as well as own emotions.
2. Using emotions - ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities. Ability to change mood to best fit task at hand.
3. Understanding emotions - ability to comprehend emotion language and appreciate complex relationships between emotions.
4. Managing emotions: ability to regulate emotions of self and others. Emotionally intelligent person can harness even negative emotions, and manage them to achieve intended goals.
Motivation
Motivation
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization and self-fulfillment at the top.
- The most fundamental four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, belongingness and love, security, and physiological needs. If these "d-needs" are not met – with the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense.
- Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term "metamotivation" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.
Self-Determination Theory
- Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that concerns people's inherent growth tendencies and innate psychological needs.
- SDT supports three basic psychological needs that must be satisfied to foster well-being and health.
- Competence
- Is the desire to control the outcome and experience mastery
- Giving people unexpected positive feedback on a task increases people's intrinsic motivation to do it
- Relatedness
- Is the universal desire to want to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others
- Autonomy
- Is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life and act in harmony with one's integrated self; however, Deci and Vansteenkiste note this does not mean to be independent of others
- It must accompany competence for people to see their behaviours as self-determined
- Offering people extrinsic rewards for behaviour that is intrinsically motivated actually undermined the intrinsic motivation.
- Competence
SDT claims to give a different approach to motivation, considering what motivates a person at any given time as opposed to seeing motivation as a unitary concept. SDT makes distinctions between different types of motivation and the consequences of them.
- Intrinsic motivation is the natural, inherent drive to seek out challenges and new possibilities that SDT associates with cognitive and social development.
- Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources.
Achievement Goal Theory
- Achievement goal theory has emphasized the role of achievement goals in regulating a wide variety of affective, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes during people’s competence pursuits.
- The theory specifies the kinds of goals that direct achievement-related behaviours.
- Focuses on the why students want to achieve; their motives
- Important as teachers to communicate the purpose of achievement
- A tension between Two purposes:
- Mastery Oriented → more positive, encourage risk-taking
- Performance Oriented → more negative outcomes
Attribution Theory
- Attribution theory is concerned with how and why ordinary people explain events as they do.
- Heider (1958) believed that people are naive psychologists trying to make sense of the social world. People tend to see cause and effect relationships, even where there is none!
- Heider didn’t so much develop a theory himself. Nontheless, there were two main ideas that he put forward that became influential.
- Internal Attribution
- The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic, rather than to outside forces. When we explain the behavior of others we look for enduring internal attributions, such as personality traits.
- For example, we attribute the behavior of a person to their personality, motives or beliefs.
- External Attribution
- The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a person's control rather than to some internal characteristic.
- When we try to explain our own behavior we tend to make external attributions, such as situational or environment features.
Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 92-104.Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In Nebraska symposium on motivation. University of Nebraska Press.
Understanding the Learning Process
Understanding the Learning Process
- Personal constructivism – Piaget
- Piaget's theory of constructivism argues that people produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences.
- Two of the key components which create the construction of an individual's new knowledge are accommodation and assimilation.
Assimilation - like fitting new ideas into existing containers (schemas)
Assimilation causes an individual to incorporate new experiences into the old experiences. This causes the individual to develop new outlooks, rethink what were once misunderstandings, and evaluate what is important, ultimately altering their perceptions.
Accommodation - having to change the shape of the containers (schema)
Accommodation is reframing the world and new experiences into the mental schema already present. Individuals conceive a particular fashion in which the world operates. When things do not operate within that context, they must accommodate and reframe the expectations with the outcomes.
Social-Constructivist Approach: Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Social-Constructivist Approach: Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
- Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."
- Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e., come before) development.
- Also, Vygotsky is relevant to instructional concepts such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in which a teacher or more advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it successfully.
- Vygotsky's theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.
- The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can't do.
- Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural learning highlights the role of social and cultural interactions play in the learning process. This theory does not have stages, like Jean Piaget’s theory. Vygotsky’s theory states that knowledge is co-constructed and that individuals learn from one another. It is called a social constructivist theory because in Vygotsky’s opinion the learner must be engaged in the learning process. Learning happens with the assistance of other people, thus contributing the social aspect of the theory. A fundamental aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the Zone of Proximal Development, (ZPD). This is a “range of tasks that are too difficult for an individual to master alone, but can be mastered with the assistance or guidance of adults or more-skilled peers (Vygotsky, 1962).” Another part of this theory is scaffolding, which is giving the learner the right amount of assistance at the right time. If the learner can perform a task with some assistance, then he or she is closer to mastering it. This theory is relevant to healthy adolescent development because if students work in pairs, they are interacting with people and therefore can learn different academic ideas from one another. This theory shows that students learn from each other; they can assist one another and co-construct knowledge.
- This theory can be applied in the classroom in several ways. The students can be grouped such that the students who understand the content work with the students who do not. For example, if a student did not understand factoring, a method to find the zero or zeros of an equation, I could have another student explain the concept to them. The more knowledgeable peer might use different language than I did as a teacher. The student’s phrasing might make more sense to the other student. The more knowledgeable student would also learn something, perhaps a deeper understanding of the content or a way to explain the concept that they had not thought of before. Students of different readiness levels will work together in groups when they do discovery activities, such as problem-based learning activities. The groups would consist of at least three students and they would be given a problem that would challenge them all, and as a group they would have to solve the problem. I would set up the activity such that it allows for everyone to contribute some ideas as to how to solve the problem before any method is attempted (2.0).
Humans are information processors
Humans are information processors
- Information is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory)
- One way of conceptualizing attention is to think of humans as information processors who can only process a limited amount of information at a time without becoming overloaded.
- Novelty, Incongruity, Emotional Association, Personal Significance can help to garner attention
- MEMORY - The processes of acquiring and retaining information for later retrieval, and the mental storage system that enables these processes (Ashcraft, 1994) - Ashcraft, M. H. (1994). Human memory and cognition. New York, NY: HarperCollins College Publishers.
- Sensory Memory
- 1st step in learning is to pay attention
- Use size, intensity, novelty, incongruity, emotion, personal significance to bolster attention (eg. good trigger, interesting questions to arouse curiosity)
- Processing information in short-term memory
- Maintenance Rehearsal - involves repeating the information in your mind. Useful for retaining something you plan to use and then forget.
- Provide for repetition and review of information
- Elaborative Rehearsal – involves associating the information you are trying to remember with something you already know – with information from long-term memory.
- Chunking – grouping individual bits of information
- Maintenance Rehearsal - involves repeating the information in your mind. Useful for retaining something you plan to use and then forget.
- Processing information in Long Term memory
- Organisation – increases learning by structuring relationships to new information e.g. chunking, concept mapping.
- Elaboration – expand on existing information e.g. mnemonic devices
- Imagery – information lends itself to images e.g. pictures, diagrams
- Context – association with aspects of physical and emotional context.
- Help student make connections between new information and what they already know
- Review prerequisites
- Use outline or diagram to show where information fits in
Problem-based Learning
Problem-based Learning
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. PBL promotes development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).
Good PBLs should...
- motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.
- require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.
- incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous courses/knowledge.
- have a level of complexity to ensure that the students must work together to solve it.
- have initial steps that are open-ended and engaging to draw students into the problem.
(Duch, Groh, and Allen, 2001)
Team Based Learning
Team Based Learning
A method popularised by Larry Michaelsen
Process:
- Individual Preparation - Students to complete studying/reading through preparatory materials before class.
- iRat - Individual Readiness Assurance Test which is very often a MCQ test individuals attempt. The score obtained is pegged to the individual.
- tRat - Team Readiness Assurance Test which is the exact same iRat, except now attempted by a team. Team members are meant to discuss the questions before scratching off an option off the IF-AT card, in the hope to find a star as that represents the correct answer.
- Every member in the team obtains the same score from the tRat.
- Teacher to go through answers in detail
- Appeal - Students may appeal against an MCQ they felt was poorly written.
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