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In the very beginning
In the very beginning
Think about what your research question. What are you wanting to understand? Ultimately, it always comes back to your research question.
That said, there is a lot of uncertainty when starting with qualitative methods. Past students have described it like learning to weave a basket. In the beginning, the pieces are there, but things are sticking out in all directions. It takes some trust and patience during the weaving process before it starts looking like a basket. Analyzing qualitative data is no different.
We'll help you get there.
Start off right
Start off right
Research Ethics
Research Ethics
If you are going to do research, it is essential to do it ethically. Some ethical considerations are very obvious. Others take some thought. Fortunately, there are studies that help summarize some of the key ethical components to keep in mind as you're getting started in qualitative research.
Research ethics are part of every scientist's lifelong learning. Lean in.
Read:
Sanjari, M., Bahramnezhad, F., Fomani, F. K., Shoghi, M., & Cheraghi, M. A. (2014). Ethical challenges of researchers in qualitative studies: the necessity to develop a specific guideline. Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, 7 (14), 1-6. PMCID: PMC4263394
Richards, H.M. & L.J. Schwartz (2002). Ethics of qualitative research: are there special issues for health services research? Family Practice, 15(2), 135-139. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/19.2.135
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (October 9, 2018. How IRBs Protect Human Research Participants (6:45m). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U8fme1boEbE
Ethical Review Boards
Ethical Review Boards
Research studies are overseen by an Institutional Review Board (IRB), who review protections for any human subject participating in your research study.
Some things you'll need
Study protocol - the details of the study
Information sheet - for participants about what the study entails
Informed consent form or Assent form - approval to participate
Data collection instruments - what are you measuring?
To get started, use a Request for Determination form (PDF; 56kb) to think through all the pieces that you need. Want to learn more? Explore all OHSU IRB forms to see what is entailed in a research protocol.
Understanding your study group
Understanding your study group
Zell, A. (2019, Nov 7). Overview of Sampling in Qualitative Research (3:52m). Youtube, https://youtu.be/WDLzF-eco8Q
Sampling
Sampling
Is your data sample representative of the larger population? How do you choose who to measure? Consider sampling when you are deciding your data collection approach.
Watch:
Overview of sampling in Qualitative Research (YouTube video; 3:52 minutes)
Read:
Guetterman, T.C. (2015). Descriptions of sampling practices within five approaches to qualitative research in education and the health sciences. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 16(2) Art 25. (ISSN 1438-5627), p1-23. https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-16.2.2290
Cultural Considerations
Cultural Considerations
Encourage underrepresented voices in biomedical research
Read:
Phrasing for inclusivity in gender research (OCTRI; 2 page PDF); STEM Assessment and Reporting Tracker (START, 2021)
Suen, L.W., Lunn, M.R., Katuzny, K. et al. What Sexual and Gender Minority People Want Researchers to Know About Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Questions: A Qualitative Study. Arch Sex Behav 49, 2301–2318 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01810-y
Maggrah, J. Indigenous man leads youth with research and Indigenous values. Yorktown This Week. October 11, 2020.
Thinking about data equity when disaggregation may not be possible
Trauma-informed Practices
Trauma-informed Practices
Unfortunately, some conversations can be triggering. Some topics can be triggering. Be trauma-informed.
Read:
Isobel, S. (2021). Trauma‐informed qualitative research: Some methodological and practical considerations. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 30, 1456-1469. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12914
Other resources:
OHSU students can get training in trauma-informed practices
How do you know if you're doing it right?
How do you know if you're doing it right?
Checklists
Checklists
With a goal of publishing your scientific results, there are a few things you should keep in mind from the start. Use these tools as a guide, because it's always easier to record important study details while they're fresh. What do you need to include? Check out the qualitative checklist recommended for publishing qualitative research. You can also refer to the EQUATOR network for publishing standards within health research.
Warnings:
Checklists alone do not ensure validity or rigor
Not everything on the checklist is necessarily relevant to your approach or method
Checklist Tools
COREQ - 32 items:
Tong, A., Sainsbury, P., Craig, J. (2007). Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 19(6), 349–357.Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) - 21 items
O’Brien, B.C., Harris, I.B., Beckman, T.J., Reed, D.A., Cook, D.A. (2014). Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research. Academic Medicine, 89, 9, 1245-1251. http://doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)
Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73(1), 26-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000151
Reading to Dive Deeper
Morse, J. (2020). The changing face of qualitative inquiry. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406920909938
Barbour, R.S. (2001). Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog? BMJ, 322, 7294, 1115-1117. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.322.7294.1115
Cohen, D.J., and B.F. Crabtree (2008). Evaluative criteria for qualitative research in health care: controversies and recommendations. The Annals of Family Medicine, 6, 4, 331-339
More about the COREQ and using checklists
According to a student in winter 2021, "the COREQ has been cited 10,047 times in less than 13 years. COREQ also made it into the book published in 2014 called Guidelines for Reporting Health Research: A User’s Manual."
Guidelines for Reporting Health Research: A User’s Manual. edited by David Moher et al., Oxford, UK, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 25 July 2014. Accessed 10 Jan. 2021.
The student also expanded: "A recent paper looked at the adherence to the COREQ among papers in the field of nursing social science and found that none of the papers complied with all 32 items (Walsh et al, 2020). 57% of the papers included 17 to 24 of the items. 38% included 9 to 16 of the checklist items."
Walsh S, Jones M, Bressington D, et al. Adherence to COREQ Reporting Guidelines for Qualitative Research: A Scientometric Study in Nursing Social Science. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. January 2020. doi:10.1177/1609406920982145
Think of these items not as a compliance tool, but rather items to consider since some items may not be applicable to your project.
Better Research
Better Research
Limiting Bias
Limiting Bias
Are you influencing the outcome of the thing you're measuring? Are you making assumptions you shouldn't?
Rigor and Reproducibility
Rigor and Reproducibility
Do it better. And approaches for training others to repeat your methods, with the same data, to get the same outcomes.
Read
Morse, J. M. (2015). Critical analysis of strategies for determining rigor in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Health Research, 25(9), 1212-1222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315588501
Long, T. & M. Johnson (2000). Rigour, reliability and validity in qualitative research. Clinical Effectiveness in Nursing, 4 (1), 30-37. https://doi.org/10.1054/cein.2000.0106.
Schwandt, Thomas A., Yvonna S. Lincoln, and Egon G. Guba (2007). Judging interpretations: But is it rigorous? Trustworthiness and authenticity in naturalistic evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation,114, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.223
Cypress, Brigitte S. (2017). Rigor or reliability and validity in qualitative research: Perspectives, strategies, reconceptualization, and recommendations. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing 36, 4, 253-263. https://doi.org/10.1097/dcc.0000000000000253
“Two of the cornerstones of science advancement are rigor in designing and performing scientific research and the ability to reproduce biomedical research findings. The application of rigor ensures robust and unbiased experimental design, methodology, analysis, interpretation, and reporting of results. When a result can be reproduced by multiple scientists, it validates the original results and readiness to progress to the next phase of research.”
Source: https://www.nih.gov/research-training/rigor-reproducibility
In practice, here are some ways you can improve your research.
In practice, here are some ways you can improve your research.
Rigor
In qualitative research, rigor is about credibility. You/your team should be able to convince your stakeholders that the research is important and that your findings are plausible and your methods trustworthy. This supports validity and trustworthiness.
Reproducibility
In qualitative research, reproducibility is less about other researchers being able to replicate your/your team’s work, than it is about being able to describe how you reached your conclusions from the data collected. You/your team should be able to replicate your own work. This supports reliability, accuracy, verification.
Reliability Strategies
Sampling strategies, including sample size and relevance (design phase)
Multiple coders and inter-rater reliability (coding phase)
Audit trail/documentation (all phases)
Peer review (analysis and reporting phase)
You don't need to do all, but at least try to do some. There is a lot of overlap among concepts.
RigorReproducibility.docxZell, A. (2020). Rigor and Reproducibility in Qualitative Research [course material]. Qualitative Methods for Health Professionals, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon.
Recommendations:
1. Include strategies that speak to both of these concepts in your project/study design.
2. Review opportunities for reducing bias in all phases, including data collection, coding, analysis, and reporting.
Why it matters
Why it matters
Reduce health inequities. Amplify voices. Make the world a better place.
Reduce health inequities. Amplify voices. Make the world a better place.
Diversity Increases Research Innovation
Diversity Increases Research Innovation
This 2020 study followed the careers of 1.2 million US doctoral recipients (from 1977 to 2015) into their publishing and faculty positions. Amazing, innovative work is being done by diverse scientists. It is being held back by bias and racism.
Science needs diversity and amplified voices.
Hofstra B, Kulkarni VV, Galvez SM, He B, Jurafsky D, McFarland DA. (2020). The Diversity–Innovation Paradox in Science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2020 Apr 28;117(17):9284-91.
Diversity's Influential Community Research
Diversity's Influential Community Research
Another great 2020 study found that African American/Black applicants tend to propose community-focused research grants more frequently, a research topic they found was underfunded by the National Institutes of Health. However, these research topics least likely to get funding led to more influential publications when they were funded, as defined higher median relative citation ratios (RCR) of those papers.
Community research matters. To communities, to scientists.
Classic Guides
Classic Guides
Green, J., & Thorogood, N. (2018). Qualitative methods for health research. Sage.
Miles, M.B., Huberman, M.A. and J. Saldaña (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A Methods Sourcebook. 3rd edition. (2014)
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