La Comunicación Verbal
Hemos tratado con bastante detenimiento los aspectos mentales de los procesos de lectura, escritura y traducción. Veremos ahora algunos aspectos menos individuales del intercambio (traducción) de información, para observar lo que sucede cuando la lengua pone en comunicación a varios individuos. Para ello recurriremos en especial a los escritos de, un gran científico ruso animado por un espíritu interdisciplinar que ha realizado contribuciones fundamentales a un número impresionante de campos del saber, como la lingüística, la semiótica, la teoría de la literatura y la ciencia de la traducción.
En 1958, en su ensayo titulado Closing Statements: Linguistics and Poetics, que mantiene su actualidad tras más de cuarenta años, Jakobson examinó los seis elementos principales que caracterizan la comunicación y las funciones correspondientes.
El emisor (addresser) es la persona que emite el mensaje, dirigido a un destinatario (addressee), en el ámbito de un contexto determinado. Los dos esquemas siguientes están tomados de una de las obras de Jakobson:
Factores de la comunicación verbal
CONTEXT
ADDRESSER ------------------ MESSAGE ----------------- ADDRESSEE
CONTACT
CODE
Funciones fundamentales de la comunicación verbal
REFERENTIAL
EMOTIVE ------------------ POETIC ----------------- CONATIVE
PHATIC
METALINGUAL
La función referencial
El contexto es fundamental. En la mayoría de los casos, el enunciado descontextualizado pierde el sentido o, en todo caso, se vuelve ambiguo. Esto se debe, en primer lugar, a que la comunicación es muy económica o eficiente y tiende a no explicitar y a dar por sabidos algunos aspectos del mensaje que se consideran implícitos, es decir, ligados al contexto. Si en un autobús el inspector dice: "Su billete, por favor ", no necesita explicar de qué billete se trata: el contexto lo hace obvio.
Si, por ejemplo, encontramos el enunciado
¿Es seguro?
fuera de contexto, dicho enunciado será ambiguo, polivalente: puede entenderse como una construcción personal o impersonal y referirse a un número impreciso de cosas o personas. Esto es exactamente lo que experimenta Babe, el protagonista de Marathon Man, del escritor y guionista William Goldman, cuando otro personaje lo somete a interrogatorio para obligarlo a confesar algo que desconoce. Su torturador le pregunta con insistencia "¿Es seguro?", y Babe le ofrece todas las respuestas imaginables, atribuyendo todos los sentidos posibles a la pregunta al esforzarse por hallar el medio de poner fin a su tormento. El torturador parece valerse deliberadamente de la ambigüedad para poder, por un lado, repetir sin cesar la misma e insistente pregunta, y por otro, mediante una sola frase, plantear una exigencia polivalente que apela a la posible reticencia del interrogado.
En este ejemplo se aprecia con claridad la función referencial de que habla Jakobson, así como la importancia del contexto del enunciado.
Por otra parte, en el lenguaje publicitario puede ser útil la ambigüedad de la descontextualización, gracias a la polisemia y a la imprecisión interpretativa. Muchos anuncios publicitarios se apoyan en este principio.
La función emocional
La función centrada en el emisor se denomina emocional o expresiva. Es la parte del mensaje que suministra información acerca de la persona que lo envía, sobre el "yo" de la situación comunicativa. Jakobson cita como ejemplo típico de la función emocional las interjecciones que -según el estudioso- no son parte de frase, sino frases completas. "Bah", "qué va" y "Uy" son en realidad expresiones completas, que pueden pronunciarse por separado y dar un sentido preciso del estado de ánimo del emisor. "A man, using expressive features to indicate his angry or ironic attitude, conveys ostensible information (Una persona que usa elementos expresivos para manifestar su ira o ironía transmite una información clara).
La entonación del mensaje puede ser otra forma de manifestar la función emotiva. Jakobson cita el caso de un actor que recitaba cincuenta veces la misma línea para transmitir cincuenta situaciones distintas, que la audiencia descifraba con precisión. Por lo tanto, la función emocional es fundamental para orientar el mensaje.
La función conativa
Sin abandonar el grupo fundamental, veremos ahora la función conativa, es decir, la que se refiere al addressee o destinatario. Esta "segunda persona" de la situación puede ser implícita, aunque en ciertos casos puede destacarse, algo que ocurre en especial en el vocativo y el imperativo. Esto sucede en el vocativo porque se invoca al destinatario ("¡Escucha, oh Señor!"), y en el imperativo porque se imparte una orden ("¡Hazte a un lado!").
El término "conativo" procede del latín, del verbo conari ("tentar"), y significa "persuasivo". De hecho, las órdenes del imperativo y las invocaciones del vocativo tienen el objetivo de impulsar al destinatario a realizar alguna acción.
Verbal Communication
We have dealt quite thoroughly with the mental aspects of the reading, writing, and translating processes. Now, we will examine some less individual aspects of the exchange (translation) of information, to see what happens when language involves many people in communication. To do that, we will draw especially on the writings of Roman JAkobsón, a great Russian scientist who - driven by an interdisciplinary attitude - made fundamental contributions to an impressive number of fields, such as linguistics, semiotics, theory of literature, and translation studies.
ON THE NET
(english)
Back in 1958, in his essay Closing Statements: Linguistics and Poetics - which is still mostly up-to-date after more than forty years - JAkobsón examined the six main elements that characterize communication and their related functions.
The addresser is the person who sends out the message, addressing an addressee, within the framework of a given context. The two following tables are taken from one of JAkobsón's texts:
Factors of verbal communication:1
CONTEXT
ADDRESSER -------> MESSAGE -------> ADDRESSEE
CONTACT
CODE
Fundamental functions of verbal communication2:
REFERENTIAL
EMOTIVE -------> POETIC -------> CONATIVE
PHATIC
METALINGUAL
The referential function
The context is extremely important. In most cases, decontextualized utterances become meaningless or, at any rate, very ambiguous. This is basically due to the fact that communication is very efficient and tends not to make explicit - hence to take for granted - some aspects of the message that are considered to be implied (i.e. context-bound). If, on a bus, a ticket collector says "Your ticket, please", it would sound rather redundant to explain what ticket he is referring to the context makes it clear.
If, for example, we come across the utterance
Is it safe?
out of context, the utterance is ambiguous and polysemic; it can imply an impersonal or personal construction and refer to an indefinite number of things/people. That is exactly what experiences Babe, the main character of William Goldman's Marathon Man when another character places him under interrogation to force him to confess something he does not know. His torturer keeps on asking him "Is it safe?", and Babe gives him any possible answer, attaching any possible meaning to the question, making every effort to put an end to that torment. And the torturer seems to deliberately avail himself of the ambiguity of that question, on the one hand, to be able to repeat incessantly the same, insisting sentence and, on the other, to ask - through a single sentence - a polysemic question, appealing to the tortured man's possible reticence.
Through this example, we can see very clearly what is the referential function that JAkobsón talks about, as well as the importance of the context of the utterance.
In addition, in the ad language, the ambiguity of a decontextualized utterance can be useful, thanks to its inherent polysemy and interpretive ambiguity. Many advertising slogans are based on this principle.
The emotional function
The addresser-based function is called emotional or expressive. It is that part of the message that supplies information about the person who is sending the message, about the "first person" of the communicative situation. JAkobsón cites, as a typical example of emotional function, the interjections, which - according to the scholar - are not elements of the sentence, but complete sentences. "Pooh", "upsidaisy", "tut-tut" are complete expressions, which can be uttered separately and give a clear idea of the addresser's mood. "A man, using expressive features to indicate his angry or ironic attitude, conveys ostensible information [...]"3.
The intonation of the message can be another form through which the emotional function manifests itself. JAkobsón tells about one sentence that an actor uttered fifty times to convey fifty different situations, which the audience unmistakably deciphered. Hence, the emotional function is extremely important to point the message in the right direction too.
The conative function
Still, within the framework of the fundamental group, we will now deal with the conative function, namely the one that refers to the addressee. The addressee, the "second person" of the situation, may be implicit, but may sometimes be emphasized, which occurs especially in the vocative and in the imperative. In the vocative, this happens because the addressee is invoked ("Listen, oh Lord!"), in the imperative because he is given an order ("Get out of my way!").
The term "conative" originates from the Latin verb conari, "to tempt", and it means "persuasive". Both the orders of the imperative and the invocations of the vocative have the purpose of persuading the addressee to do something.
Structure and Clarity
Both the Spanish and English texts maintain a clear structure, presenting the main ideas in a logical order. The use of headings, such as "La función referential" and "The referential function," helps to organize the content effectively in both languages.
Terminology
In terms of terminology, the Spanish version uses specific terms like "emisor" (addresser), "destinatario" (addressee), and "funciones fundamentales" (fundamental functions), which have direct counterparts in English. The translations maintain consistency with specialized vocabulary, ensuring that the academic nature of the text is preserved.
Depth of Explanation
The Spanish version often provides more contextual examples, particularly in the discussion of referential function. For instance, the example of the bus inspector is presented similarly in both texts, highlighting the importance of context. However, the English version includes additional commentary on the implications of ambiguity in the phrase "Is it safe?" which adds depth to the explanation.
Tone and Style
Both texts retain an academic tone, but the English version sometimes reads slightly more fluidly due to differences in sentence construction. Phrases in English may feel more concise, while the Spanish version uses longer, more complex sentences, which can be common in academic writing.
Spanish Summary
El texto explora aspectos mentales de la lectura, escritura y traducción, enfocándose en cómo la lengua facilita la comunicación entre individuos. Se centra en el trabajo de Roman Jakobson, quien en 1958 identificó seis elementos de la comunicación y sus funciones. Se discuten las funciones referencial, emocional y conativa, destacando la importancia del contexto en la comunicación. Jakobson utiliza ejemplos, como un diálogo en un autobús, para ilustrar cómo la ambigüedad puede afectar el entendimiento. La función emocional se relaciona con el estado de ánimo del emisor y se ejemplifica con interjecciones. Finalmente, la función conativa enfatiza la persuasión hacia el destinatario.
English Summary
The text examines the mental aspects of reading, writing, and translation, focusing on how language facilitates communication among individuals. It centers on Roman Jakobson's work, in 1958 identified six elements of communication and their functions. The referential, emotional, and conative functions are discussed, highlighting the importance of context in communication. Jakobson uses examples, such as a dialogue on a bus, to illustrate how ambiguity can affect understanding. The emotional function relates to the sender's mood and is exemplified by interjections. Finally, the conative function emphasizes persuasion toward the addressee.
Content
Both summaries effectively encapsulate the main ideas of the original texts, addressing the focus on Jakobson's framework and the functions of communication. They mention the same key concepts and examples, ensuring that the core messages are preserved.
Language Use
The Spanish summary is slightly more elaborate in phrasing, which might reflect the stylistic norms of academic writing in Spanish. The English summary, while concise, maintains clarity and completeness, presenting the information in a straightforward manner.
Overall Effectiveness
Both summaries are effective in conveying the essential points from the original chapters, and they remain accessible to their respective audiences. The differences in style and language reflect cultural nuances in academic writing, but the core messages remain consistent across both versions.