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So, what is jazz? Jazz is one of those musical genres that have come to acquire macrohistorical importance given not only their global universalization in one form or another, but the cultural symbolism they represent. In fact, in one sense, and not necessarily a positive one, jazz is everywhere. Really? All you have to do is to pay attention to the music that usually accompanies advertising—very often it will be a jazz jingle.[1] However, any discussion of jazz in such reverential terms invariably brings up the matter of “appropriation” and the inevitable question: Is jazz Afro-people’s music or Euro-people’s music? The answer to this simple question is not as obvious as most people would assume. Yes, it is true. Today, jazz is created and sustained mainly by Euro-people and others outside the United States (one measure of this fact in United States is to look at the “no-jazz-here” musical programming of radio stations that have their target audience Afro-people).[2] One way, however, to deal with this legitimate question intelligently is to trace the origins and development of this musical genre.
So, what is jazz? Jazz is one of those musical genres that have come to acquire macrohistorical importance given not only their global universalization in one form or another, but the cultural symbolism they represent. In fact, in one sense, and not necessarily a positive one, jazz is everywhere. Really? All you have to do is to pay attention to the music that usually accompanies advertising—very often it will be a jazz jingle.[1] However, any discussion of jazz in such reverential terms invariably brings up the matter of “appropriation” and the inevitable question: Is jazz Afro-people’s music or Euro-people’s music? The answer to this simple question is not as obvious as most people would assume. Yes, it is true. Today, jazz is created and sustained mainly by Euro-people and others outside the United States (one measure of this fact in United States is to look at the “no-jazz-here” musical programming of radio stations that have their target audience Afro-people).[2] One way, however, to deal with this legitimate question intelligently is to trace the origins and development of this musical genre.
To begin with, the term jazz has its origins in the vernacular of the U.S. African American working class. Its first apparent public usage was in the Chicago Herald newspaper in the May 6th, 1916 issue where the word was first spelt jass (with quotation marks). Later it was transformed to the word jasz and then a year or so later to its current form (jazz). Jazz soon began to be used by musicians as a descriptive verbal signal to members in the band (as in the phrase “jazz-it”) telling them to increase the level of sound and tempo of the music. At one time the term also had a sexual connotation (as in “he jassed her”) which helps to explain, in part, why jazz initially had an unsavory reputation. The first recorded use of the term “jazz” as we understand it today was in 1902, at least that is what a New Orleans musician of the day going by the professional name of Jelly Roll Morton (real name: Joseph Ferdinand la Menthe [1885–1941]) would claim. He would assert that it is he who first used the term by applying it to his style of music to distinguish it from other contemporary musical styles, most especially the popular U.S. African American musical genre of the day called ragtime (see below), thereby insisting that he was the original inventor of jazz. While many have hotly contested this claim, Sales (1984) suggests that an examination of Morton’s published musical work (coupled with other sources of information) lends credence to his claim but only in that he was the first to have, in Sales words, “injected crucial elements into ragtime that nudged it further along the road to jazz” (p. 56). It would appear then that jazz, which was an essentially urban creation (but with rural folk roots as will be indicated in a moment), first surfaced in the entrepôt of New Orleans, Louisiana—though this apparent original home of the music should be not be construed to mean that various simpler versions were not being played elsewhere in the South—as a result of fortuitous circumstances (which need not detain us here), especially among the city’s black residents. Besides Morton, the other name that frequently appears in the literature on the origins of jazz in New Orleans is Charles Buddy Bolden (1868-1931). Bolden, an enterprising individual who owned a barber’s shop and published a scandal sheet (called the Cricket), was also an accomplished cornetist. In the 1890s he formed his own 5-7 person dance band, the Bolden Ragtime Band, that began to innovate with ragtime. In fact to this day, Bolden’s original proto-jazz band repertory continues to serve as the model for all jazz band repertories: one, and later, two cornets; guitar; bass violin; one or two clarinets; valve trombone alternating with slide trombone; and drums. (Morton added the piano.)
To begin with, the term jazz has its origins in the vernacular of the U.S. African American working class. Its first apparent public usage was in the Chicago Herald newspaper in the May 6th, 1916 issue where the word was first spelt jass (with quotation marks). Later it was transformed to the word jasz and then a year or so later to its current form (jazz). Jazz soon began to be used by musicians as a descriptive verbal signal to members in the band (as in the phrase “jazz-it”) telling them to increase the level of sound and tempo of the music. At one time the term also had a sexual connotation (as in “he jassed her”) which helps to explain, in part, why jazz initially had an unsavory reputation. The first recorded use of the term “jazz” as we understand it today was in 1902, at least that is what a New Orleans musician of the day going by the professional name of Jelly Roll Morton (real name: Joseph Ferdinand la Menthe [1885–1941]) would claim. He would assert that it is he who first used the term by applying it to his style of music to distinguish it from other contemporary musical styles, most especially the popular U.S. African American musical genre of the day called ragtime (see below), thereby insisting that he was the original inventor of jazz. While many have hotly contested this claim, Sales (1984) suggests that an examination of Morton’s published musical work (coupled with other sources of information) lends credence to his claim but only in that he was the first to have, in Sales words, “injected crucial elements into ragtime that nudged it further along the road to jazz” (p. 56). It would appear then that jazz, which was an essentially urban creation (but with rural folk roots as will be indicated in a moment), first surfaced in the entrepôt of New Orleans, Louisiana—though this apparent original home of the music should be not be construed to mean that various simpler versions were not being played elsewhere in the South—as a result of fortuitous circumstances (which need not detain us here), especially among the city’s black residents. Besides Morton, the other name that frequently appears in the literature on the origins of jazz in New Orleans is Charles Buddy Bolden (1868-1931). Bolden, an enterprising individual who owned a barber’s shop and published a scandal sheet (called the Cricket), was also an accomplished cornetist. In the 1890s he formed his own 5-7 person dance band, the Bolden Ragtime Band, that began to innovate with ragtime. In fact to this day, Bolden’s original proto-jazz band repertory continues to serve as the model for all jazz band repertories: one, and later, two cornets; guitar; bass violin; one or two clarinets; valve trombone alternating with slide trombone; and drums. (Morton added the piano.)
Now, in indicating that jazz first emerged in New Orleans does not imply, it should be cautioned, that the music simply emerged out of nowhere. Like all genres of music everywhere jazz was a product of a combination of serendipitous and deliberate musical influences, both contemporary and historical. In fact, the roots of jazz lay in the various ethnic genres of African rhythmic music brought over from Africa in the seventeenth century by enslaved Africans. Thousands of miles away from the rich sounds of their homeland, the enslaved Africans made music from the various implements and tools they had at their disposal. They also brought with them an oral tradition which emphasized vocal sounds over instrumental sounds. As Blassingame (1979: 22) points out “Group participation, improvisation, call and response, rhythmic complexity, and percussions are constant in traditional African music. Often hand clapping or stamping of the feet supply the percussion accompaniment to songs.” He further notes: “Perhaps the most distinctive feature of traditional African music is its rhythmic complexity. In this area the African is far superior to the European. While European music is based characteristically on one rhythm, African tunes often contain three or more patterns. (See also Schuller [1968], and Jones [1959] for more on this point.) The antecedents of jazz, therefore, are to be found in the earliest musical genres performed by enslaved Africans in the rural south: work songs (including field hollers and chants), folk ballads, and church music. Work songs and folk ballads were songs sung roughly during the period up to Emancipation by the enslaved Africans on plantations. Church music or “gospel music” was an outgrowth of the effort by plantation owners to use Christianity for the pacification of the enslaved Africans where the converts improvised a new genre of music around the melodies and rhythms of the hymns. The emergence of gospel music was crucial to the development of not only jazz, but even rock, as Werner (1989: 38), for example, points out: “Gospel music has given much of today’s rock music its very foundations. The elements found in gospel music can be found in all the components of rock, from the basic beat, structured upon the even eighth note pattern as the pulse, to the shouts and the drama exhibited by performers, including the dance steps which seem to be a derivative of the dances performed to the slaves’ gospel songs.”
Now, in indicating that jazz first emerged in New Orleans does not imply, it should be cautioned, that the music simply emerged out of nowhere. Like all genres of music everywhere jazz was a product of a combination of serendipitous and deliberate musical influences, both contemporary and historical. In fact, the roots of jazz lay in the various ethnic genres of African rhythmic music brought over from Africa in the seventeenth century by enslaved Africans. Thousands of miles away from the rich sounds of their homeland, the enslaved Africans made music from the various implements and tools they had at their disposal. They also brought with them an oral tradition which emphasized vocal sounds over instrumental sounds. As Blassingame (1979: 22) points out “Group participation, improvisation, call and response, rhythmic complexity, and percussions are constant in traditional African music. Often hand clapping or stamping of the feet supply the percussion accompaniment to songs.” He further notes: “Perhaps the most distinctive feature of traditional African music is its rhythmic complexity. In this area the African is far superior to the European. While European music is based characteristically on one rhythm, African tunes often contain three or more patterns. (See also Schuller [1968], and Jones [1959] for more on this point.) The antecedents of jazz, therefore, are to be found in the earliest musical genres performed by enslaved Africans in the rural south: work songs (including field hollers and chants), folk ballads, and church music. Work songs and folk ballads were songs sung roughly during the period up to Emancipation by the enslaved Africans on plantations. Church music or “gospel music” was an outgrowth of the effort by plantation owners to use Christianity for the pacification of the enslaved Africans where the converts improvised a new genre of music around the melodies and rhythms of the hymns. The emergence of gospel music was crucial to the development of not only jazz, but even rock, as Werner (1989: 38), for example, points out: “Gospel music has given much of today’s rock music its very foundations. The elements found in gospel music can be found in all the components of rock, from the basic beat, structured upon the even eighth note pattern as the pulse, to the shouts and the drama exhibited by performers, including the dance steps which seem to be a derivative of the dances performed to the slaves’ gospel songs.”
A particularly important device that the Africans on the plantation retained from their West African musical heritage was the use of a clear and forceful musical ground beat (made by percussion instruments or even simply handclaps or foot stomping) running evenly, relentlessly and independently throughout their musical performance. This is a beat of the type that is common to military marching music in the European musical tradition, but not normally found in other European musical genres. (Incidentally, the beat in these other forms emerges out of the music itself.) On the foundations of this unceasing ground-beat, the Africans then piled up simulated counter rhythms of their musical heritage achieved by changing the rhythm in a melody in accordance with improvised time durations. Out of this simple traditional U.S. African American folk music, some of which, even as late as 1863, could be described in very basic terms, such as jug, tub, spasm and washboard band music—that is terms that pointed to the essence of the music as unadorned and melodically simple, and relying for obvious reasons on homemade instruments such as jugs, kettles, wooden boxes, string instruments (simple guitars, violins, banjos and fiddles made from wooden boxes), bells, whistles, kitchen utensils (spoons, forks, washboards, etc.) and other assorted domestic instruments—grew four principal musical genres that formed the precursors of jazz (besides gospel music): plantation music (blackface minstrelsy—a corruption of the traditional U.S. African American rural folk music by whites), spirituals (jubilee songs), blues and ragtime.
A particularly important device that the Africans on the plantation retained from their West African musical heritage was the use of a clear and forceful musical ground beat (made by percussion instruments or even simply handclaps or foot stomping) running evenly, relentlessly and independently throughout their musical performance. This is a beat of the type that is common to military marching music in the European musical tradition, but not normally found in other European musical genres. (Incidentally, the beat in these other forms emerges out of the music itself.) On the foundations of this unceasing ground-beat, the Africans then piled up simulated counter rhythms of their musical heritage achieved by changing the rhythm in a melody in accordance with improvised time durations. Out of this simple traditional U.S. African American folk music, some of which, even as late as 1863, could be described in very basic terms, such as jug, tub, spasm and washboard band music—that is terms that pointed to the essence of the music as unadorned and melodically simple, and relying for obvious reasons on homemade instruments such as jugs, kettles, wooden boxes, string instruments (simple guitars, violins, banjos and fiddles made from wooden boxes), bells, whistles, kitchen utensils (spoons, forks, washboards, etc.) and other assorted domestic instruments—grew four principal musical genres that formed the precursors of jazz (besides gospel music): plantation music (blackface minstrelsy—a corruption of the traditional U.S. African American rural folk music by whites), spirituals (jubilee songs), blues and ragtime.
Blues grew out of the rural southern U.S. African American folk tradition (in which, as noted earlier, the African oral musical style plays a dominant role). In its early form the music represented the cry of the downtrodden and the oppressed; hence the music had an aura of melancholy and despair. The rural to urban migration of the formerly enslaved following Emancipation ensured that blues would have an impact on other genres of music as well, including the development of jazz. In fact, by 1910 blues as a formal term had firmly become part of the U.S. musical lexicon. Further, during the next two decades the music would spread from the Mississippi delta region, east to New Orleans and north to the urban settings of Chicago and New York, producing cross-fertilizations between blues and other genres that would become quite popular. Among the more well-known blues singers were Alberta Hunter, Ma Rainey, Clara Smith, Maggie Jones and Bessie Smith. (Incidentally, blues would, in time, influence even white rock musicians. For example songs such as the following are all rooted in the blues: “Can’t Buy Me Love” by the Beatles; “Hound Dog” by Elvis Presley; “Rock Around the Clock” by Bill Haley and the Comets; “Born Too Late” by Cream; and “Love in Vain” by the Rolling Stones.
Blues grew out of the rural southern U.S. African American folk tradition (in which, as noted earlier, the African oral musical style plays a dominant role). In its early form the music represented the cry of the downtrodden and the oppressed; hence the music had an aura of melancholy and despair. The rural to urban migration of the formerly enslaved following Emancipation ensured that blues would have an impact on other genres of music as well, including the development of jazz. In fact, by 1910 blues as a formal term had firmly become part of the U.S. musical lexicon. Further, during the next two decades the music would spread from the Mississippi delta region, east to New Orleans and north to the urban settings of Chicago and New York, producing cross-fertilizations between blues and other genres that would become quite popular. Among the more well-known blues singers were Alberta Hunter, Ma Rainey, Clara Smith, Maggie Jones and Bessie Smith. (Incidentally, blues would, in time, influence even white rock musicians. For example songs such as the following are all rooted in the blues: “Can’t Buy Me Love” by the Beatles; “Hound Dog” by Elvis Presley; “Rock Around the Clock” by Bill Haley and the Comets; “Born Too Late” by Cream; and “Love in Vain” by the Rolling Stones.
Around 1895, one of the cross-fertilizations began to acquire a distinct shape in and around New Orleans. As the city’s Creole population and the new migrants from the countryside began to interact (mainly under the duress of the evolving Jim Crowism) they emerged with a style of music that was counterbalanced to the rhythms of each group producing a form of proto-jazz; it came to be called ragtime. The term denotes the ragged aspect of the counterbalancing where harmonies and rhythms from the black musical tradition (slave chants, minstrel tunes, jug music, gospel music, “coon songs,” plantation music, spirituals, blues, etc.) were counterpoised against those from Creolized European musical tradition (especially that represented by German and Italian marching band music, and to a lesser degree classical piano concert music), producing a sound that, on initial hearings, appeared thoroughly alien, but still fascinating, to the European musical ear. While primarily a piano music played by such illustrious musicians as Scott Joplin, James Scott, Eubie Blake, and Fats Waller, it was also played by small bands such as those led by Buddy Bolden, Bunk Johnson, Fletcher Henderson and Louis Armstrong. Initially, the emergence of ragtime on the national musical scene was greeted with considerable opposition from the white bourgeois and some of the U.S. African American petit bourgeois classes. They felt that the music was simply too decadent and morally corrupting. The following passage (quoted in Feather [1961]) from an editorial in the magazine Musical Courier published in 1899 is illustrative: “A wave of vulgar, of filthy and suggestive music has inundated the land. Nothing but ragtime prevails. No seaside resort this summer has been without its ragtime orchestra, its weekly cakewalk [an U.S. African American dance genre]. Worse yet, the fashionable idol folk of Newport have been the worst offenders. … [C]akewalk is nothing but an African danse du ventre [belly dance], a milder edition of African orgies, and the music is degenerate music.” Despite such denunciations, in time ragtime became very popular, reaching its apogee around 1910-1915, both in the United States and abroad.
Around 1895, one of the cross-fertilizations began to acquire a distinct shape in and around New Orleans. As the city’s Creole population and the new migrants from the countryside began to interact (mainly under the duress of the evolving Jim Crowism) they emerged with a style of music that was counterbalanced to the rhythms of each group producing a form of proto-jazz; it came to be called ragtime. The term denotes the ragged aspect of the counterbalancing where harmonies and rhythms from the black musical tradition (slave chants, minstrel tunes, jug music, gospel music, “coon songs,” plantation music, spirituals, blues, etc.) were counterpoised against those from Creolized European musical tradition (especially that represented by German and Italian marching band music, and to a lesser degree classical piano concert music), producing a sound that, on initial hearings, appeared thoroughly alien, but still fascinating, to the European musical ear. While primarily a piano music played by such illustrious musicians as Scott Joplin, James Scott, Eubie Blake, and Fats Waller, it was also played by small bands such as those led by Buddy Bolden, Bunk Johnson, Fletcher Henderson and Louis Armstrong. Initially, the emergence of ragtime on the national musical scene was greeted with considerable opposition from the white bourgeois and some of the U.S. African American petit bourgeois classes. They felt that the music was simply too decadent and morally corrupting. The following passage (quoted in Feather [1961]) from an editorial in the magazine Musical Courier published in 1899 is illustrative: “A wave of vulgar, of filthy and suggestive music has inundated the land. Nothing but ragtime prevails. No seaside resort this summer has been without its ragtime orchestra, its weekly cakewalk [an U.S. African American dance genre]. Worse yet, the fashionable idol folk of Newport have been the worst offenders. … [C]akewalk is nothing but an African danse du ventre [belly dance], a milder edition of African orgies, and the music is degenerate music.” Despite such denunciations, in time ragtime became very popular, reaching its apogee around 1910-1915, both in the United States and abroad.
From about 1915 onwards as the popularity of ragtime waned, yet another style emerged from it: “New Orleans style” jazz, which would grow out of the hot music of people such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton. This new style, like ragtime (and minstrelsy before it), soon spread rapidly to other parts of the country, so much so that by the 1920s not only would it become integrated into the musical culture of the white majority, but it would also lend its name to that decade (the 1920s would come to be known as the “jazz age”). Among the major names that would surface in disseminating New Orleans jazz were such U.S. African Americans musicians as Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong, Earl “Fatha” Hines, Fats Waller, King Oliver, Fletcher Henderson, and Duke Ellington. With the “nationalization” of this new style other innovating musicians created, in time, various substyles of this music; among the more prominent of these were swing, boogie-woogie, bebop, cool, free, fusion and more recently world jazz.
From about 1915 onwards as the popularity of ragtime waned, yet another style emerged from it: “New Orleans style” jazz, which would grow out of the hot music of people such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton. This new style, like ragtime (and minstrelsy before it), soon spread rapidly to other parts of the country, so much so that by the 1920s not only would it become integrated into the musical culture of the white majority, but it would also lend its name to that decade (the 1920s would come to be known as the “jazz age”). Among the major names that would surface in disseminating New Orleans jazz were such U.S. African Americans musicians as Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong, Earl “Fatha” Hines, Fats Waller, King Oliver, Fletcher Henderson, and Duke Ellington. With the “nationalization” of this new style other innovating musicians created, in time, various substyles of this music; among the more prominent of these were swing, boogie-woogie, bebop, cool, free, fusion and more recently world jazz.
Against the backdrop of the foregoing pedigree, what then were the distinguishing characteristics that separated jazz from other musical forms as it evolved? One can identify at least seven (albeit at varying levels of practical implementation depending upon style and circumstance) that were salient which in combination gave it a specific identity:
Against the backdrop of the foregoing pedigree, what then were the distinguishing characteristics that separated jazz from other musical forms as it evolved? One can identify at least seven (albeit at varying levels of practical implementation depending upon style and circumstance) that were salient which in combination gave it a specific identity:
• Improvization. The musician was allowed to create or make up sounds as he/she saw fit within the confines of a melody (or even in the absence of a melody) on the basis of these practices: the music was usually unrehearsed; it was not usually memorized or written down (notated) beforehand (except in the case, usually, of the large jazz bands (big band jazz) where written arrangements were the norm—though note that even in their case solo performances were often improvised); the music was usually composed while it was being performed; and it was spontaneous. About the last: This spontaneity that improvisation permitted was the most crucial element of this music. As a consequence, the aesthetics of this particular music were the reverse of the aesthetics of, for example, European orchestral music. As Gioia (1988: 55), for example, explains: “An aesthetics of jazz would almost be a type of nonaesthetics. Aesthetics, in principle if not in practice, focuses our attention on those attributes of a work of art which reveal the craftsmanship and careful planning of the artist. Thus the terminology of aesthetic philosophy—words such as form, symmetry, balance—emphasizes the methodical element in artistic creation. But the improviser was anything but methodical; hence these terms have only the most tangential applicability to the area of jazz. … For this reason the virtues we search for in other art forms—premeditated design, balance between form and content, an overall symmetry—are largely absent in jazz.” In other words, jazz was a type of music that was best appreciated by not looking at it in isolation from the artist, the musician, but rather appreciating it in direct relation to the artist himself/herself.
• Improvization. The musician was allowed to create or make up sounds as he/she saw fit within the confines of a melody (or even in the absence of a melody) on the basis of these practices: the music was usually unrehearsed; it was not usually memorized or written down (notated) beforehand (except in the case, usually, of the large jazz bands (big band jazz) where written arrangements were the norm—though note that even in their case solo performances were often improvised); the music was usually composed while it was being performed; and it was spontaneous. About the last: This spontaneity that improvisation permitted was the most crucial element of this music. As a consequence, the aesthetics of this particular music were the reverse of the aesthetics of, for example, European orchestral music. As Gioia (1988: 55), for example, explains: “An aesthetics of jazz would almost be a type of nonaesthetics. Aesthetics, in principle if not in practice, focuses our attention on those attributes of a work of art which reveal the craftsmanship and careful planning of the artist. Thus the terminology of aesthetic philosophy—words such as form, symmetry, balance—emphasizes the methodical element in artistic creation. But the improviser was anything but methodical; hence these terms have only the most tangential applicability to the area of jazz. … For this reason the virtues we search for in other art forms—premeditated design, balance between form and content, an overall symmetry—are largely absent in jazz.” In other words, jazz was a type of music that was best appreciated by not looking at it in isolation from the artist, the musician, but rather appreciating it in direct relation to the artist himself/herself.
• Syncopation. In jazz differing rhythms coexisted together, giving it a “syncopation” character at irregular and often spontaneous intervals. Tempo and time could shift at any point or could work in unison differing only in conception. This method of creating counterpoint rhythms had its roots in the improvisational rhythms of African percussion instruments (e.g. drums, cymbals, vibraharp, and marimba) where the musicians played the instruments in such a way that they created polyrhythms and counterbalances producing a sound that to the European ear sometimes appeared to have a cacophonous flavor.
• Syncopation. In jazz differing rhythms coexisted together, giving it a “syncopation” character at irregular and often spontaneous intervals. Tempo and time could shift at any point or could work in unison differing only in conception. This method of creating counterpoint rhythms had its roots in the improvisational rhythms of African percussion instruments (e.g. drums, cymbals, vibraharp, and marimba) where the musicians played the instruments in such a way that they created polyrhythms and counterbalances producing a sound that to the European ear sometimes appeared to have a cacophonous flavor.
• Blue Notes. Because jazz came from a vocal frame of reference the transition from low note to high note or from sharp to flat was constantly driven by the ability to ‘slide’ from one note to another rather than by steps characterized by integral jumps as scored on a standard page of sheet music. These notes were then bent, turned, inverted and reshaped according to the manner the musician chose to play, leading to the production of what was sometimes referred to as “blue notes.” This approach represented a musical compromise between the demands of African traditional music and the North American (European) musical background of U.S. African Americans.
• Blue Notes. Because jazz came from a vocal frame of reference the transition from low note to high note or from sharp to flat was constantly driven by the ability to ‘slide’ from one note to another rather than by steps characterized by integral jumps as scored on a standard page of sheet music. These notes were then bent, turned, inverted and reshaped according to the manner the musician chose to play, leading to the production of what was sometimes referred to as “blue notes.” This approach represented a musical compromise between the demands of African traditional music and the North American (European) musical background of U.S. African Americans.
• Swing. Jazz was played within the context of a musical style called “swing” comprising five basic characteristics: the presence of a constant tempo; the production of a “group sound” where all members of a band performed in a synchronized manner; the permeation of performances by exceptional buoyancy and gaiety of a type not common in performances of European classical orchestral music (hence, both players and members of the audience felt that they were involved in a joyous celebration of the ongoing creation of music); and the constant presence of alternating tension and relaxation in music lines as the motion of these lines rose and fell alternately.
• Swing. Jazz was played within the context of a musical style called “swing” comprising five basic characteristics: the presence of a constant tempo; the production of a “group sound” where all members of a band performed in a synchronized manner; the permeation of performances by exceptional buoyancy and gaiety of a type not common in performances of European classical orchestral music (hence, both players and members of the audience felt that they were involved in a joyous celebration of the ongoing creation of music); and the constant presence of alternating tension and relaxation in music lines as the motion of these lines rose and fell alternately.
• Jamming. Because jazz was both improvisational and individualistic, each musician could well come out with a unique set of notes during the course of an actual performance that he/she may never have played before. In other words, each time a jazz band performed both the players and the audience were likely to be treated to something ‘new.’ The format within which this process occurred could be likened to a jam session (in fact at times it was actually be a real jam session). Within this format, however, there were a number of unwritten rules, of which two were critical: First, a band member was not to monopolize the solo sequences at the expense of others, nor was he/she to attempt to garner audience attention at the expense of others by being ‘pushy.’ Second, audiences were encouraged to become participants in the performance by making approving noises of encouragement, or by stamping their feet, or by simply clapping their hands in applause. In a successful jazz performance, therefore, the interaction between the players themselves (especially between the soloist and the rhythm section) and between the band as a whole and the audience was one of “call-and-response” (reminiscent of the call-and-response of drums in Africa when communicating between villages, or the call-and-response between the preacher and his congregation in a “sanctified” church)—but underlined by respect and encouragement where all played a part in the ongoing “ceremony” of making music.
• Jamming. Because jazz was both improvisational and individualistic, each musician could well come out with a unique set of notes during the course of an actual performance that he/she may never have played before. In other words, each time a jazz band performed both the players and the audience were likely to be treated to something ‘new.’ The format within which this process occurred could be likened to a jam session (in fact at times it was actually be a real jam session). Within this format, however, there were a number of unwritten rules, of which two were critical: First, a band member was not to monopolize the solo sequences at the expense of others, nor was he/she to attempt to garner audience attention at the expense of others by being ‘pushy.’ Second, audiences were encouraged to become participants in the performance by making approving noises of encouragement, or by stamping their feet, or by simply clapping their hands in applause. In a successful jazz performance, therefore, the interaction between the players themselves (especially between the soloist and the rhythm section) and between the band as a whole and the audience was one of “call-and-response” (reminiscent of the call-and-response of drums in Africa when communicating between villages, or the call-and-response between the preacher and his congregation in a “sanctified” church)—but underlined by respect and encouragement where all played a part in the ongoing “ceremony” of making music.
• Informality. Jazz was not dependent upon a written or memorized set composition or arrangement. In fact, given that the written notation was alien to black culture, be it in Africa or the United States, an important distinguishing characteristic separating black music from white music, at a general level, had been the fact that white music had traditionally depended on the accurate reproduction of a set composition. This is by no means to suggest that all jazz produced by blacks was produced on the fly, but rather most of it was. Very little of it was to be found in written scores. It must be remembered that because of white racism U.S. African Americans were not permitted access to music schools until well after much of their music had become part of U.S. culture as a whole. To some degree, then, the individual freedom of style that was so much part of jazz was an outcome of the absence of the rigid formalism characteristic of traditional white music, especially orchestral music. (The general exception, as already noted big band jazz where written arrangements were a necessity because of the large ensemble of players involved.)
• Informality. Jazz was not dependent upon a written or memorized set composition or arrangement. In fact, given that the written notation was alien to black culture, be it in Africa or the United States, an important distinguishing characteristic separating black music from white music, at a general level, had been the fact that white music had traditionally depended on the accurate reproduction of a set composition. This is by no means to suggest that all jazz produced by blacks was produced on the fly, but rather most of it was. Very little of it was to be found in written scores. It must be remembered that because of white racism U.S. African Americans were not permitted access to music schools until well after much of their music had become part of U.S. culture as a whole. To some degree, then, the individual freedom of style that was so much part of jazz was an outcome of the absence of the rigid formalism characteristic of traditional white music, especially orchestral music. (The general exception, as already noted big band jazz where written arrangements were a necessity because of the large ensemble of players involved.)
• Instruments. The instruments used in jazz performances consisted of specific standardized type and numbers. In general, but not always, the instruments of choice for the rhythm section comprised: the string bass or the electric bass guitar; the drum set (consisting usually of a snare drum, a large and a small tom-tom drum, a bass drum, a ride cymbal, a crash cymbal, and a high-hat (or sock) cymbal); the piano; and wind instruments (chiefly trumpet, cornet, clarinet, flute, and the different types of saxophones).
• Instruments. The instruments used in jazz performances consisted of specific standardized type and numbers. In general, but not always, the instruments of choice for the rhythm section comprised: the string bass or the electric bass guitar; the drum set (consisting usually of a snare drum, a large and a small tom-tom drum, a bass drum, a ride cymbal, a crash cymbal, and a high-hat (or sock) cymbal); the piano; and wind instruments (chiefly trumpet, cornet, clarinet, flute, and the different types of saxophones).
In providing this sketchy overview of the history and characteristics of jazz, several points ought to be kept in mind. (a) Although the impression may be gained from the foregoing that the development of jazz was an all-male affair, it is far from the truth. To be sure, the music has traditionally been male-dominated but that does not imply that women have had no part to play in its development. Without the contribution of jazz vocalists such as Billie Holiday, Bessie Smith, Ella Fitzgerald, and the late Sarah Vaughan, jazz would not be jazz.
In providing this sketchy overview of the history and characteristics of jazz, several points ought to be kept in mind. (a) Although the impression may be gained from the foregoing that the development of jazz was an all-male affair, it is far from the truth. To be sure, the music has traditionally been male-dominated but that does not imply that women have had no part to play in its development. Without the contribution of jazz vocalists such as Billie Holiday, Bessie Smith, Ella Fitzgerald, and the late Sarah Vaughan, jazz would not be jazz.
(b) Given the enforced marginal status of blacks throughout U.S. history, the development of jazz and other popular forms of black music that eventually achieved some degree of acceptability by the white-dominated music industry has been marked by, to varying degrees, black musicians sacrificing their authenticity on the altar of economic survival in a white-dominated capitalist society on one hand, and on the other, their exploitation (e.g. by means of unfair contracts—relative to those of white musicians) by the music industry.
(b) Given the enforced marginal status of blacks throughout U.S. history, the development of jazz and other popular forms of black music that eventually achieved some degree of acceptability by the white-dominated music industry has been marked by, to varying degrees, black musicians sacrificing their authenticity on the altar of economic survival in a white-dominated capitalist society on one hand, and on the other, their exploitation (e.g. by means of unfair contracts—relative to those of white musicians) by the music industry.
(c) Because jazz was born in the United States, it must also be emphasized that the contribution of whites to its development is undeniable. The relationship between whites and jazz has not always been one of “exploitation”—that is, whites benefitting at the expense of blacks through appropriation and the like. (In an essay review DeVeaux [1996: 394] summarizes the core of this matter when he frames it with this question: “Does the paradigm of black authenticity leave any role for white musicians other than as imitators or exploiters, or any role for the mass white audience other than as philistines and voyeurs?”) This much is incontrovertible: A number of individual white jazz musicians and personalities, as Sudhalter (1999) has shown in his extensive work, have played very constructive roles in the development of jazz. Names that come to mind include Bix Beiderbecke, Jack Teagarden, Stan Getz, Benny Goodman, Bill Evans, Gil Evans and John Hammond. The last was not a musician at all, but a wealthy jazz patron. Sales (1984:103) describes his role thus:
(c) Because jazz was born in the United States, it must also be emphasized that the contribution of whites to its development is undeniable. The relationship between whites and jazz has not always been one of “exploitation”—that is, whites benefitting at the expense of blacks through appropriation and the like. (In an essay review DeVeaux [1996: 394] summarizes the core of this matter when he frames it with this question: “Does the paradigm of black authenticity leave any role for white musicians other than as imitators or exploiters, or any role for the mass white audience other than as philistines and voyeurs?”) This much is incontrovertible: A number of individual white jazz musicians and personalities, as Sudhalter (1999) has shown in his extensive work, have played very constructive roles in the development of jazz. Names that come to mind include Bix Beiderbecke, Jack Teagarden, Stan Getz, Benny Goodman, Bill Evans, Gil Evans and John Hammond. The last was not a musician at all, but a wealthy jazz patron. Sales (1984:103) describes his role thus:
His seemingly endless fount of money, time, and energy was funneled into the careers of countless musicians both great and obscure who he found jobs for, put through school, got out of jail and hock, hospitalized, dried out, recorded, buried, loaned money to with no hope of repayment; of writers he found publishers for; magazines he underwrote; racial and activists groups he subsidized and guided; historic concerts and benefits he produced. The recording sessions he organized and supervised include a who’s who of jazz, blues, gospel and even rock. His discoveries and protégés included Count Basie, Billie Holiday, Teddy Wilson, Lester Young, the boogie-woogie pianists whose revival he sparked almost single-handedly, Charlie Christian, Big Joe Turner, Aretha Franklin, George Benson, Bob Dylan, and Bruce Springsteen.
His seemingly endless fount of money, time, and energy was funneled into the careers of countless musicians both great and obscure who he found jobs for, put through school, got out of jail and hock, hospitalized, dried out, recorded, buried, loaned money to with no hope of repayment; of writers he found publishers for; magazines he underwrote; racial and activists groups he subsidized and guided; historic concerts and benefits he produced. The recording sessions he organized and supervised include a who’s who of jazz, blues, gospel and even rock. His discoveries and protégés included Count Basie, Billie Holiday, Teddy Wilson, Lester Young, the boogie-woogie pianists whose revival he sparked almost single-handedly, Charlie Christian, Big Joe Turner, Aretha Franklin, George Benson, Bob Dylan, and Bruce Springsteen.
However, there is an even more fundamental point being argued here: the development of jazz, as with all other forms of “black” music and “white” music in United States, cannot be completely extricated from the historical matrix of the tortured relationship between blacks and whites. Each group has had a hand in the development of the musics of the other, sometimes consciously, but more often unconsciously. Jazz (as well as its antecedental forms, blues, spirituals, etc.) is as much “black” music as it is also “white” music—though not necessarily in equal proportions (on this score one must part company with Sudhalter, for the primacy of the African roots of the music is simply incontestable). By the same token, there is no such thing as an authentic U.S. “white” music, for blacks have also played an important role (often unwittingly) in the development of U.S. “white” music—regardless of the musical form. Radano (2003) makes a similar point when he states that: “black music’s emergence is inextricably linked to a racial logic, one in which blackness defines a distinctiveness or ‘difference’ that has been historically negotiated within a relationship between African- and Euro-Americans. That is, the qualities that define black music grow out of a cultural ground that is more common than many realize.…” Yet, despite this fact, he also points out, there has been (and continues to be) a vested interest on both sides to deny this historical reality: “black music, as the defining expression of race, has been shaped and reshaped within a peculiar interracial [musical] conversation whose participants simultaneously deny that the conversation has ever taken place” (p. xiii). (See also McMichael [1998[ who explores the insurgent role of jazz in undermining whiteness.)
However, there is an even more fundamental point being argued here: the development of jazz, as with all other forms of “black” music and “white” music in United States, cannot be completely extricated from the historical matrix of the tortured relationship between blacks and whites. Each group has had a hand in the development of the musics of the other, sometimes consciously, but more often unconsciously. Jazz (as well as its antecedental forms, blues, spirituals, etc.) is as much “black” music as it is also “white” music—though not necessarily in equal proportions (on this score one must part company with Sudhalter, for the primacy of the African roots of the music is simply incontestable). By the same token, there is no such thing as an authentic U.S. “white” music, for blacks have also played an important role (often unwittingly) in the development of U.S. “white” music—regardless of the musical form. Radano (2003) makes a similar point when he states that: “black music’s emergence is inextricably linked to a racial logic, one in which blackness defines a distinctiveness or ‘difference’ that has been historically negotiated within a relationship between African- and Euro-Americans. That is, the qualities that define black music grow out of a cultural ground that is more common than many realize.…” Yet, despite this fact, he also points out, there has been (and continues to be) a vested interest on both sides to deny this historical reality: “black music, as the defining expression of race, has been shaped and reshaped within a peculiar interracial [musical] conversation whose participants simultaneously deny that the conversation has ever taken place” (p. xiii). (See also McMichael [1998[ who explores the insurgent role of jazz in undermining whiteness.)
(d) While jazz may have been born in the United States, very early on (thanks to the invention and universalization of the phonograph and the radio) it became international in scope, not only in terms of simply “performance” but also “production” as each geographic domain borrowed, gave, and lent to the other various strands of the idiom—as it replaced minstrelsy and ragtime. For more on jazz and its history, besides the sources already mentioned above, see also Blesh (1956), Blassingame (1973), Gioia (1997), Kaufman and Guckin (1979), Kernfield (1988), Radano (2003), Werner (1989), and Southern (1997). For a visual documentary history of what is primarily swing-era jazz (and even that somewhat less than satisfactory) see the nineteen-hour ten-episode PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) film by Ken Burns simply titled Jazz released in 2001. For those who like to listen with the eyes too, one would be remiss here if two other films are not recommended: Fernando Trueba’s Calle 54 (2000) and the film by Win Wenders, Buena Vista Social Club (1999).[3] Why? Because both films provide a delicious audio-visual window into the influence, especially in terms of rhythm and percussion, on the development of jazz by a sub-genre known as “Latin Jazz”(coming out the Caribbean and South American musical landscapes, as its name suggests), and whose influential luminaries include: Mario Bauzá; Gato; Barbieri; Ray Barretto; Frank "Machito" Grillo; Chico O’Farill; Eddie Palmieri; Tito Puente; Arturo Sandoval; George Shearing; Toots Thielemans; Bebo Valdés; Chucho Valdés; and so on.[4]
(d) While jazz may have been born in the United States, very early on (thanks to the invention and universalization of the phonograph and the radio) it became international in scope, not only in terms of simply “performance” but also “production” as each geographic domain borrowed, gave, and lent to the other various strands of the idiom—as it replaced minstrelsy and ragtime. For more on jazz and its history, besides the sources already mentioned above, see also Blesh (1956), Blassingame (1973), Gioia (1997), Kaufman and Guckin (1979), Kernfield (1988), Radano (2003), Werner (1989), and Southern (1997). For a visual documentary history of what is primarily swing-era jazz (and even that somewhat less than satisfactory) see the nineteen-hour ten-episode PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) film by Ken Burns simply titled Jazz released in 2001. For those who like to listen with the eyes too, one would be remiss here if two other films are not recommended: Fernando Trueba’s Calle 54 (2000) and the film by Win Wenders, Buena Vista Social Club (1999).[3] Why? Because both films provide a delicious audio-visual window into the influence, especially in terms of rhythm and percussion, on the development of jazz by a sub-genre known as “Latin Jazz”(coming out the Caribbean and South American musical landscapes, as its name suggests), and whose influential luminaries include: Mario Bauzá; Gato; Barbieri; Ray Barretto; Frank "Machito" Grillo; Chico O’Farill; Eddie Palmieri; Tito Puente; Arturo Sandoval; George Shearing; Toots Thielemans; Bebo Valdés; Chucho Valdés; and so on.[4]
One ought to point out here that from a musical perspective, true respect for U.S.-derived music across the planet revolves primarily around only one form: jazz. No other musical genre that the U.S. has exported to the rest of the world can even remotely come close to the respect that jazz commands. (For a quick overview of the international impact of jazz, Atkins (2003) is a worthy read). This point has not been lost on U.S. jazz musicians. As Dexter Gordon, the highly talented tenor saxophonist who spent over a decade working in Europe, while explaining why they were able to play to a full house when in Athens even though the audience were not jazz fans, told veteran observer of the jazz scene, W. Royal Stokes (1991:179): “You know, jazz is the only original American art form and it’s so strange that everybody in the world knows that except the citizens of the United States of America. Isn’t that incongruous? I mean, it’s unbelievable! When you go out of the country, that’s the thing they dig about America, is jazz. They’re not too concerned about a Ford or a Chrysler or something. I mean, this is what America is known for all over the world.” In support of Gordon’s point: when Mercer Ellington, son of Duke Ellington was looking for a place to house his father’s priceless collection of tapes, interviews, musical scores, recordings, etc., it was the Danish Radio that came to his assistance and volunteered to not only serve as a custodian of this ‘archive’ but to also to process the tapes and transfer them onto new tape material so that the sound was preserved cleanly. It was only later, when it became clear how important a part of U.S. cultural history this archive was, that in 1988 a U.S. institution stepped forward to house it: the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.
One ought to point out here that from a musical perspective, true respect for U.S.-derived music across the planet revolves primarily around only one form: jazz. No other musical genre that the U.S. has exported to the rest of the world can even remotely come close to the respect that jazz commands. (For a quick overview of the international impact of jazz, Atkins (2003) is a worthy read). This point has not been lost on U.S. jazz musicians. As Dexter Gordon, the highly talented tenor saxophonist who spent over a decade working in Europe, while explaining why they were able to play to a full house when in Athens even though the audience were not jazz fans, told veteran observer of the jazz scene, W. Royal Stokes (1991:179): “You know, jazz is the only original American art form and it’s so strange that everybody in the world knows that except the citizens of the United States of America. Isn’t that incongruous? I mean, it’s unbelievable! When you go out of the country, that’s the thing they dig about America, is jazz. They’re not too concerned about a Ford or a Chrysler or something. I mean, this is what America is known for all over the world.” In support of Gordon’s point: when Mercer Ellington, son of Duke Ellington was looking for a place to house his father’s priceless collection of tapes, interviews, musical scores, recordings, etc., it was the Danish Radio that came to his assistance and volunteered to not only serve as a custodian of this ‘archive’ but to also to process the tapes and transfer them onto new tape material so that the sound was preserved cleanly. It was only later, when it became clear how important a part of U.S. cultural history this archive was, that in 1988 a U.S. institution stepped forward to house it: the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.
By way of conclusion to this brief foray into jazz: it’s worth pointing out that it is not race but culture that makes us “different.” As noted earlier, there is only one race on this planet: the human race. Now, if it is culture that creates diversity within the human race then what that means, of course, is that contrary to what racists claim, culture is a learned phenomenon, and not a biological artifact. And what is culture? It is simply the different cumulative adaptive responses of human societies to the different physical (natural) environment they live in and which is the product, in the first instance, of a dialectic between agency and structure (in this instance, environmental structures). Two further points to note here about cultures: First, cultures are almost never entirely self-generated; they always include cross-cultural fertilizations through both deliberate and fortuitous—wars, conquests, trade, travel, etc.—cultural “border-crossings.” (Think about this: if we were to go far back in time when human societies were still forming, it is quite possible that we would find evidence of humans borrowing elements from animal “cultures”—e.g. cultures of apes—as they developed their own human cultures [now, how about them apples!]). Incidentally, the fuzzy zone that marks off one culture from another can be termed as a cultural border or boundary.[5] Second, when it comes to “civilizations” (which are simply complex cultures) there is absolutely (repeat absolutely) no way that a civilization can arise without cross-cultural infusions or border-crossings (implication: no cultural diversity, no civilization). In other words, the idea of a “Western” civilization, to give one example, is not only a bogus idea, but it is also a racist idea! The development of jazz in United States was, in the final analysis, an outcome of both deliberate and fortuitous border-crossings; regardless of whether one likes it or not—even the musical instruments that are considered quintessentially jazz instruments speak to this fact.
By way of conclusion to this brief foray into jazz: it’s worth pointing out that it is not race but culture that makes us “different.” As noted earlier, there is only one race on this planet: the human race. Now, if it is culture that creates diversity within the human race then what that means, of course, is that contrary to what racists claim, culture is a learned phenomenon, and not a biological artifact. And what is culture? It is simply the different cumulative adaptive responses of human societies to the different physical (natural) environment they live in and which is the product, in the first instance, of a dialectic between agency and structure (in this instance, environmental structures). Two further points to note here about cultures: First, cultures are almost never entirely self-generated; they always include cross-cultural fertilizations through both deliberate and fortuitous—wars, conquests, trade, travel, etc.—cultural “border-crossings.” (Think about this: if we were to go far back in time when human societies were still forming, it is quite possible that we would find evidence of humans borrowing elements from animal “cultures”—e.g. cultures of apes—as they developed their own human cultures [now, how about them apples!]). Incidentally, the fuzzy zone that marks off one culture from another can be termed as a cultural border or boundary.[5] Second, when it comes to “civilizations” (which are simply complex cultures) there is absolutely (repeat absolutely) no way that a civilization can arise without cross-cultural infusions or border-crossings (implication: no cultural diversity, no civilization). In other words, the idea of a “Western” civilization, to give one example, is not only a bogus idea, but it is also a racist idea! The development of jazz in United States was, in the final analysis, an outcome of both deliberate and fortuitous border-crossings; regardless of whether one likes it or not—even the musical instruments that are considered quintessentially jazz instruments speak to this fact.
NOTES
NOTES
[1] Refer, for example, to Mark Lavar’s book Jazz Sells: Music, Marketing, and Meaning (2015) in which he shows how pervasive this musical genre has become in the world of consumer marketing. However, there is a big irony here. In the country of its birth, the United States, jazz is the least popular genre when measured in terms of music sales (La Rosa, 2015).
[1] Refer, for example, to Mark Lavar’s book Jazz Sells: Music, Marketing, and Meaning (2015) in which he shows how pervasive this musical genre has become in the world of consumer marketing. However, there is a big irony here. In the country of its birth, the United States, jazz is the least popular genre when measured in terms of music sales (La Rosa, 2015).
[2] On this planet there is only one race: the human race. Therefore, rather than use the term “black” people to refer to people of African descent the preference here is to use the shorter term Afro-people. The same logic in usage can be applied to the term “white” people.
[2] On this planet there is only one race: the human race. Therefore, rather than use the term “black” people to refer to people of African descent the preference here is to use the shorter term Afro-people. The same logic in usage can be applied to the term “white” people.
[3] See also Jam Miami: A Celebration of Latin Jazz (2002) by Image Entertainment. Listening with the eye? Yes; it refers to watching/listening to a live concert versus listening to the concert only as an audio track. (See Platz and Kopiez [2012] on the significance of eye-listening in a musical performance.) Suggestion: next time you have an opportunity to view a live concert (even if it is only on a DVD or you are streaming it over the internet) compare that experience with listening to that performance only as an audio-track, in terms of your emotions. All things being equal (from the perspective of sound-quality) which experience is better? Reminder: prior to the invention of sound recording technology, about a 150 years ago, human beings accessed all musical performances as live performances.
[3] See also Jam Miami: A Celebration of Latin Jazz (2002) by Image Entertainment. Listening with the eye? Yes; it refers to watching/listening to a live concert versus listening to the concert only as an audio track. (See Platz and Kopiez [2012] on the significance of eye-listening in a musical performance.) Suggestion: next time you have an opportunity to view a live concert (even if it is only on a DVD or you are streaming it over the internet) compare that experience with listening to that performance only as an audio-track, in terms of your emotions. All things being equal (from the perspective of sound-quality) which experience is better? Reminder: prior to the invention of sound recording technology, about a 150 years ago, human beings accessed all musical performances as live performances.
[4] Four worthy books to read on the “Latin tinge:” Fernandez (2006); Leymarie (2002); Roberts (1999); and Salazar (2002).
[4] Four worthy books to read on the “Latin tinge:” Fernandez (2006); Leymarie (2002); Roberts (1999); and Salazar (2002).
[5] It may be noted here that in a truly democratic society that usually encompasses many cultures among the objectives of democracy in such a society includes the twin-goals of acceptance (not just tolerance) of cultural borders and the simultaneous facilitation of border-crossings as essential to democracy, progress, and the quality of life for all. Therefore, when a community with a monopoly over power insists on maintaining strict boundaries in enforced hegemonic opposition to border-crossings then one should view it as symptomatic of racism/ ethnicism and the like. At the same time, however, where there are deliberate border-crossings (even in the face of opposition), it does not always signify respect and acceptance of the culture of the “Other.” And the same can also hold true for fortuitous border-crossings (arising for instance out of one or more of such avenues as conquest or colonization or trade and commerce). In such instances, that is border-crossings in the absence of respect and acceptance of other peoples’ cultures, we can call these border-crossings as appropriation.”
[5] It may be noted here that in a truly democratic society that usually encompasses many cultures among the objectives of democracy in such a society includes the twin-goals of acceptance (not just tolerance) of cultural borders and the simultaneous facilitation of border-crossings as essential to democracy, progress, and the quality of life for all. Therefore, when a community with a monopoly over power insists on maintaining strict boundaries in enforced hegemonic opposition to border-crossings then one should view it as symptomatic of racism/ ethnicism and the like. At the same time, however, where there are deliberate border-crossings (even in the face of opposition), it does not always signify respect and acceptance of the culture of the “Other.” And the same can also hold true for fortuitous border-crossings (arising for instance out of one or more of such avenues as conquest or colonization or trade and commerce). In such instances, that is border-crossings in the absence of respect and acceptance of other peoples’ cultures, we can call these border-crossings as appropriation.”
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Blassingame, John W. (1973). Black New Orleans, 1860–1880. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Blassingame, John W. (1979). The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Blesh, Rudi. (1958). Shining Trumpets: A History of Jazz. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
DeVeaux, Scott. 1996. “Review: What Did We Do to Be So Black and Blue?” Musical Quarterly 80 (3): 392–430.
Fernandez, Raul A. (2006). From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Feather, Leonard. (1961). The Book of Jazz. New York: Horizon.
Gioia, Ted. (1988). The Imperfect Art: Reflections on Jazz and Modern Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gioia, Ted. (1997). The History of Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press.
Jones, A. W. (1959). Studies in African Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kaufman, Frederick, and Guckin, John P. (1979). The African Roots of Jazz. New York: Alfred.
Kernfield, Barry, ed. (1988). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz. (2 vols.) New York: MacMillan.
La Rosa, David. (2015). “Jazz Has Become the Least-Popular Genre in the U.S.” The Jazz Line (online publication), March 9, 2015. http://thejazzline.com/news/2015/03/jazz-least-popular-music-genre (Retrieved April 13, 2015)
Laver, Mark. (2015). Jazz Sells: Music, Marketing, and Meaning. New York, NY: Routledge.
Leymarie, Isabelle. (2002). Cuban Fire: The Story of Salsa and Latin Jazz. New York, NY: Continuum.
McMichael, Robert K. (1998). “‘We Insist–Freedom Now!’: Black Moral Authority, Jazz, and the Changeable Shape of Whiteness.” American Music 16 (4): 375–416.
Platz, Friedrich, and Kopiez, Reinhard. (2012). “When the Eye Listens: A Meta-analysis of How Audio-visual Presentation Enhances the Appreciation of Music Perfomance.” Music Perception 30 (1), 71-83. Available online:
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/230725151_When_the_Eye_Listens_A_Meta-analysis_of_How_Audio-visual_Presentation_Enhances_the_Appreciation_of_Music_Performance Also available here:
http://www.elegantbrain.com/edu4/classes/readings/depository/misc/music_eye_listening.pdf
Radano, Ronald. (2003). Lying up a Nation: Race and Black Music. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Roberts, John Storm. (1999). The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States. (Second Edition) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Salazar, Max. (2002). Mambo Kingdom: Latin Music in New York. New York, NY: Schirmer.
Sales, Grover. (1984). Jazz: America's Classical Music. New York, NY: Da Capo.
Schuller, Gunther. (1968). The Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development. New York: Oxford University Press.
Southern, Eileen. (1997). The Music of Black Americans: A History. (Third edition) New York: W. W. Norton.
Stokes, W. Royal. (1991). The Jazz Scene: An Informal History from New Orleans to 1990. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sudhalter, Richard M. (1999). Lost Chords: White Musicians and Their Contribution to Jazz, 1915–1945. New York: Oxford University Press.
Werner, Otto. (1989). The Origin and Development of Jazz. Dubuque, IO: Kendall/Hunt.
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