The Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Legitimacy of the Umayyads of al-Andalus

The Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Legitimacy of the Umayyads of al-Andalus

This paper was written for my Intro to non-Western Art Art History course. In this project, I discuss the history of the Great Mosque of Córdoba and how it is linked to the Umayyads legitimization of their emirate and, later on, caliphate. I examine the additions of each ruler and their possible implications, especially as it relates to al-Andalus' power and authority with the threat of the Abassids in Baghdad and the Fatimids in Egypty.

The Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Legitimacy of the Umayyads of al-Andalus

In the year 750 CE, a new political force rose in the Eastern Islamic Empire: the Abbasids. This dynasty eventually presided over the height of Islamic power in the Middle Ages. In order to solidify their power, they tried to exterminate all potential rivals from the Umayyad family, which had ruled the Islamic world from their capital in Damascus. Most male members of the Umayyad family were murdered when they attended a dinner hosted by the Abbasids. One Umayyad, however, managed to escape the bloodbath. Abd al-Rahman I fled Syria and, after traveling through North Africa, arrived in al-Andalus, at the western fringes of the Islamic world. There he established an emirate that eventually would rival the Abbasids. To solidify the power of the new emirate, and later the caliphate, in al-Andalus, the Umayyads built the Great Mosque of Córdoba and infused its design with characteristics that would portray al-Andalus as a legitimate, strong Islamic state.

The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad caliphate of Damascus to put an end to “its easygoing but self-serving rule.”[1] This was a bloody takeover that resulted in the death of the majority of the Umayyad family; however, Abd al-Rahman I survived and fled to Spain, called al-Andalus then. He settled in Córdoba and declared himself emir, or prince, and acquired powers similar to those of the governor of an Islamic province. He “was determined to build up a secure power base in al-Andalus which would enable him to survive and pass on the title to his descendants in a way no previous governor had been able to do. He also intended to establish himself as an independent ruler”[2]. Because Abd al-Rahman was forced to flee Damascus, his homeland, he wanted to establish Córdoba and al-Andalus as a continuation of the Umayyad dynasty.

After Abd al-Rahman I’s death, the emirate was passed onto Abd al-Rahman II, then Abd al-Rahman III. As the emirate grew, “the administration became more formal and bureaucratic and took on the structures it retained until the end of Umayyad rule in the early eleventh century”[3]. Al-Andalus also saw medical and scientific advancement, as well as a proliferation of the arts. By the 10th century “Córdoba had grown to half a million inhabitants and proudly displayed its stately palaces, 300 public baths, and many impressive mosques.”[4] Córdoba was a center of knowledge and progress when, in 929 CE, Abd al-Rahman III declared himself the caliph to rival not only the declining Abbasid state in the East, but the rising power of the Shi’a Fatimids in Egypt. Al-Andalus reached its golden age when Abd al-Rahman III’s son, al-Hakam II, became caliph. It was during this time that the Great Mosque of Córdoba received its most ornate additions: mosaics on the qibla wall that alluded to the Syrian Umayyad caliphate. Al-Andalus remained strong for about two more centuries, but, ultimately, in 1236, the Christians conquered Córdoba. Christian architects then turned the Great Mosque of Córdoba into a cathedral, as if to solidify the defeat of the Muslims.

While the building is now called the Great Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, it is, at its core, a Friday mosque. Thus, it is made in the hypostyle design with doubled horseshoe-shaped arches.[5] Abd al-Rahman I had the mosque built in 785, but the subsequent emirs and caliphs—Abd al-Rahman II, Abd al-Rahman III, and al-Hakam II—added onto the mosque. [Figure 1] The mosque, after the additions of al-Hakam II, had 36 piers and 514 columns.[6] “The whole area of the mosque, 189m (620 ft) by 137m (450ft), was enclosed with 18m (59 ft) high buttressed walls.”[7] As the emirate grew stronger and more advanced, and eventually declared itself a caliphate in 929 CE, the different rulers added onto the Great Mosque of Córdoba. The arches alternate between white stone and red brick. One of the most captivating elements of the Great Mosque is perhaps the doubled arches. [Figure 2] They create a sense of elevation and infinity. While the impact of these arches is breathtaking, the purpose in creating them was more of a logistical one. The Umayyad builders used the remains of a Visigothic church (which in turn had been built on the site of a Roman temple). Consequently, the marble columns that they used were of different heights. So, the architects made all of the columns the same height: six feet tall.[8] However, this posed another problem since the building would have been left with a low roof. “To solve the problem, the designers cleverly chose to place a second tier of arches above the first, adding immensely to the majesty of the place.”[9] The mosque also, in accordance with the hypostyle structure, had a qibla wall and the mihrab room for prayer. Both the qibla wall and the mihrab were adorned with elaborate golden mosaics, which were a gift from the Byzantine emperor, and calligraphy. As the Umayyads consolidated their power in modern day Spain, the Great Mosque of their stronghold also grew.

The doubled red and white horseshoe arches are perhaps the most famous element of the Great Mosque of Córdoba.[10] As discussed earlier, the arches were doubled for structural reasons. The horseshoe shape of the arches, which later became the staple of al-Andalus, was borrowed from the Visigoths, a Barbarian tribe that shortly ruled Spain before the Muslims. Art historians, however, are still debating the reasoning behind the alternating colors. Susana Calvo Capilla discusses two possible reasons as to why the arches contained the color red. The first possible explanation is that red shop stalls were set up “in the camps that preceded an important battle.”[11] This is a practice that predates Islam. Another explanation for the red arches is that the meeting between God and the Prophet Muhammad in Jerusalem was conducted under a red shop stall[12]. The second possible reason, which concerns religion, is more appropriate in regards to the mosque, the Islamic place of worship. Because this emirate was new and in dire need of establishing authority it was important to demonstrate that, although it was no longer in Syria, Córdoba was still a devout Muslim city and its rulers were legitimate, devout emirs. Abd al-Rahman I may have also wanted to subtly connect al-Andalus with the Eastern Islamic empire by alluding to Jerusalem, the third holiest city in Islam, and the meeting of Allah and the Prophet Muhammad. After all, Abd al-Rahman I and his successors wanted to establish the Cordovan emirate as a strong, devout continuation of the Syrian Umayyads.

The calligraphy in the Great Mosque and its color also helped establish Córdoba as a center for learning.[13] On the qibla wall [Figure 3], surrounding the mihrab, are passages from the Qur’an written in gold, which were commissioned by al-Hakam II. In Islam, light symbolizes knowledge, and the color most associated with light is gold.[14] The light from intellect helps fight against chaos and darkness. Symbolically, al-Hakam states that, in Córdoba, the word of God brings knowledge and terminates ignorance. This decoration, therefore, is not only one of the highest praises of God, but a proclamation that Córdoba is an intellectual city. At the time, scholars came to Córdoba to study medicine and science, among other things.[15] So, as if to provide a subtle record of Córdoba’s wealth of knowledge, al-Hakam commissioned this addition to the qibla wall.

The meaning of the calligraphy on the qibla wall also served a purpose. Most of the passages discuss predestination and were most likely chosen because they legitimized the newly established al-Andalus caliphate. The theme of predestination “reinforced the role that the Prince of the Faithful played as the political chief [. . .] The caliph is ultimately chosen by God to lead the people on the right path and they in turn owe him obedience.”[16] Basically, the passages state that the devout Muslim has complete faith in God and that God predetermines everyone’s life. So, God intended for al-Hakam to be the caliph and to rule over al-Andalus. Therefore, to question the caliph’s rule is to question God’s will, which no Muslim should do. The calligraphy serves to legitimize the caliphate in al-Andalus, especially against the threat of growing Islamic powers in North Africa and the Middle East. In the absence of free will there is little space for the public to question the legitimacy of a second caliphate. The calligraphy on the qibla wall not only established Córdoba as a center of learning, but solidified the caliph’s power.

Abd al-Rahman I was very nostalgic for his home in Syria; however, he could never return. Consequently, he incorporated many techniques of the Damascus Umayyad caliphate, to which he belonged. The hypostyle design was the first: the Great Mosque in Damascus was of this same design. Abd al-Rahman I “wanted to simulate a forest of palm trees with the pillars to remind him of his native Syrian homeland.”[17] The flat roof was held up by marble columns and had a qibla wall, to which people prayed, just like the Middle Eastern mosques. However, the qibla wall in the Great Mosque of Córdoba does not point towards Mecca, but south “as it would be if the mosque were indeed in Damascus.”[18] Abd al-Rahman may have done this because the qibla wall is the holiest wall in a mosque; therefore, it is of the utmost importance. He so desired to continue the Umayyad legacy that he subverted the traditional qibla wall facing. Subtly, he is declaring that the al-Andalus Umayyads, who continued the dynasty’s power in the West, are just as important and strong as those who once lived in Damascus.

Abd al-Rahman I was not the only Umayyad to call upon past traditions. Specifically, the decorations—vegetal designs, calligraphy, stucco designs, and mosaics—added by Abd al-Rahman III and al-Hakam II are continuations of old architectural design techniques.[19] Calligraphy and vegetal designs were the main subjects of mosque decoration, so the adornment of the Great Mosque of Córdoba continued this tradition. It also continued traditional Umayyad designs. Al-Hakam consciously decorated the mosque with stucco and mosaics because the Syrian Umayyads adorned their mosques with both of these elements.[20] At this point in time, al-Hakam was the caliph; however, he is only the second caliph, so his rule is not yet secure, especially since the rival Fatimids in Egypt posed a threat closer than the declining Abbasids in Baghdad. Consequently, al-Hakam linked the Andalusian Umayyad caliphate to the Syrian one. By association, his caliphate should be just as intellectual and strong as its predecessor in Damascus. Thus, the decorations on the Great Mosque of Córdoba serve to legitimize the new caliphate.

While the decorations on the qibla wall did conform to Umayyad traditions, the actual structure of the qibla wall and the mihrab did not. As discussed earlier, the qibla wall does not actually face Mecca; instead, it faces south, as if the mosque itself were located in Damascus and not al-Andalus. The mihrab also does not follow tradition. Normally the mihrab is a niche; however, in the Great Mosque of Córdoba, the mihrab is a separate room. [Figure 4] In fact, “This mihrab is the first to take the shape of a room.”[21] This is significant because, while al-Hakam may have wanted to associate al-Andalus with Umayyad Syria, which represented the long gone past, he also wanted to leave his mark by incorporating some forward thinking. This is possibly a statement of individuality and modernity. In Islam there can only be one true caliphate;[22] however, there were two caliphates in the 10th century: one in Baghdad and the other in Córdoba. So, al-Hakam, again acting to solidify the new Iberian caliphate, may have commissioned this new technique to show that, in the modern day, Islam needed a modern caliphate with modern techniques: al-Andalus. While he wanted to associate al-Andalus with the great Syrian Umayyads, al-Hakam II may have been trying to legitimize his own caliphate.

Like all mosques, the purpose of the Great Mosque of Córdoba is to provide a place of worship for Muslims. However, this mosque is special in that it helps define the emirate and caliphate of al-Andalus. For Abd al-Rahman I, the Great Mosque symbolized the continuation of the Umayyads after the Abbasids’ massacre[23]. Even Abd al-Rahman III and the following caliphs used the Great Mosque of Córdoba as a “renewal of historical and visual links with the Umayyad caliphate, connections pursued with particular energy by the Spanish Umayyads in support of their own caliphate, which they had established only a generation before.”[24] The myriad allusions to the Syrian Umayyads in the Córdoba mosque symbolize that the Umayyads were not squashed, and, in fact, their new caliphate in al-Andalus was just as powerful (if not more) and, most importantly, legitimate.

No other building came to symbolize the greatness of the Andalusian Umayyads, and by extension the entire family’s power, as the Great Mosque of Córdoba did. As the dynasty solidified its stronghold in al-Andalus, so grew the mosque. Whether in Damascus or in Córdoba, on the western fringes of the Islamic world, the Umayyads showed the world that they were the only legitimate commanders of the faithful and left their greatness and their mark on the stones of the mosques that they built, above all in their capital. Córdoba and its Umayyad past will forever hold a special place in the hearts and minds of many people, including the great poet Federico García Lorca, when he said, “Córdoba. Lejana y sola,” in his poem “Canción del jinete.” Throughout the poem, Lorca implies that the echo of al-Andalus can still be heard in Córdoba. Even after thousands of years, the story and the greatness of the Umayyads has not been forgotten.

Bibliography

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“Great Mosque, Córdoba, Spain, begun AD 785, plan showing restoration and successive additions: (a) original mosque of ‛Abd al-Rahman I; (b) extension of ‛Abd al- Rahman II, 836; (c) original portal Bab al-Wuzara’, restored 855–6; (d) minaret and expanded court of ‛Abd al-Rahman III, 951; (e) extension of al-Hakam II, completed 976; (f) maqṣūra; (g) extension of al-Mansur, 987–8." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed November 30, 2015, http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/img/grove/art/F007007.

“Great Mosque, Córdoba, Spain, mihrab, AD 976; photo credit: VAnni/Art Resource, NY.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed December 2, 2015, http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/img/grove/art/F015183.

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Kennedy, Hugh. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Harlow, Essex, United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited, 1996.

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Salloum, H. "Andalusia Crowning-Glory + The Great Mosque, Córdoba, Spain - The Mezquita of Cordova." Muslim World 82, no. 1-2 (n.d.): 145-147. Arts & Humanities Citation.

End Notes

[1] Grabar, “Islamic Spain, the First Four Centuries: An Introduction,” 5.

[2] Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal, 31.

[3] Ibid., 44.

[4] Hellman, “The Architecture of Al-Andalus,” 25.

[5] Fig. 1: “Great Mosque of Cordoba Successive Additions,” Oxford University Press.

[6] Kleiner, Gardner’s Art, 128-129.

[7] Salloum, “Andalusia Crowning-Glory,” 146.

[8] Honour and Fleming, The Visual Arts: a History, 273-4.

[9] Hellman, “The Architecture of Al-Andalus,” 22.

[10] Fig. 2: “Interior of mosque at Cordoba Spain 8th-10th century,” Art Museum Image Gallery.

[11] Calvo Capilla, “La ampliación califal de la mezquita de Córdoba,” 94. The original quote reads: “en los campamentos que precedían a una batalla importante.”

[12] Ibid., 94.

[13] Fig. 3: “Great Mosque, Córdoba, Spain, mihrab, AD 976,” Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press.

[14] Calvo Capilla, “La ampliación califal de la mezquita de Córdoba,” 94.

[15] Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 70.

[16] Calvo Capilla, “La ampliación califal de la mezquita de Córdoba,” 91. The original quote reads: “reforzaba el papel del Príncipe de los Creyentes como jefe político [. . .] El califa es elegido en último término por Dios para dirigir a las gentes por el buen camino y éstas le deben obediencia.”

[17] Hellman, “The Architecture of Al-Andalus,” 22.

[18] Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World, 59.

[19] Fig. 4: “Mihrab,” Art Museum Image Gallery.

[20] Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal, 106.

[21] Dodds, “The Great Mosque of Córdoba,” 18.

[22] Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal, 35.

[23] Dodds, “The Great Mosque of Córdoba,” 15.

[24] Ibid., 21.