Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE): Caesar was concerned with securing Jewish support in the region, granting them religious freedom and privileges, such as exemption from military service.
Herod the Great: Appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate in 37 BCE, ruling a client kingdom of Rome.
Tiberius (14–37 AD): He was the first to show significant hostility, expelling Jews from Rome in 19 AD due to their refusal to conform to Roman cultural practices.
Embedded Files
Roman general and emperor Vespasian (reigned 69–79 CE) was deliberately promoted as the fulfiller of a messianic-style prophecy, primarily through the propaganda of historian Flavius Josephus and Roman imperial narratives. This was designed to give legitimacy to a new dynasty by positioning him as the "world ruler" prophesied in Jewish and Roman contexts.
Key Aspects of Vespasian's "Messianic" Persona:
The Prophecy: Josephus writes in The Jewish War that an ambiguous oracle in "Sacred Scriptures" predicted a ruler of the world would emerge from Judea, a prophecy he believed was fulfilled by Vespasian.
"King from the East": Rabbinic traditions also mention a figure identifying a leader from Judea, and Vespasian was in Judea when proclaimed Emperor.
Propaganda Purpose: Josephus, a Jew working for the Romans, identified Vespasian to portray him as a chosen instrument of God who fulfilled prophecy, making him a sort of "Roman Messiah".
Divine Authority: To justify his ascension (and not being from a noble family), stories were circulated of Vespasian performing healing miracles, similar to the stories surrounding Jesus.
Contrast with Jesus: The Gospel of Mark was likely written in response to this, positioning Jesus as the true ruler against the Flavian propaganda
Josephus' major historical works and the canonical Gospels were largely written during the Flavian era (roughly 69–96 AD).
While Josephus wrote under the direct patronage of the Flavian emperors (Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian), the Gospels were produced by Christian communities during the same period, often cited as starting just after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD
After surrendering to Roman forces during the Jewish Revolt, Josephus was given patronage by the Flavian dynasty, moving to Rome and adopting their family name.
The Jewish War (c. 75–78 AD): His first work, which focuses on the revolt (66–70 AD).
Antiquities of the Jews (c. 93–94 AD): A comprehensive history of the Jewish people completed under Emperor Domitian.
Against Apion & Life (c. 95-99 AD): Later works written in the same period.
The Gospels (c. 65 – 100 AD)
Context: Most modern scholars date the four canonical Gospels to the late 1st century, placing them within the Flavian, and shortly after, era.
Mark (c. 65–70 AD): Generally considered the earliest, often linked with the destruction of the Temple.
Matthew & Luke (c. 80–90 AD): Produced later, possibly utilizing Mark as a source.
John (c. 90–100 AD): The latest of the canonical gospels.
Shared Background: Both sets of writings address the social, political, and religious climate following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD.
Josephus' References: Josephus (in Antiquities, Book 18 and 20) provides the most extensive non-Christian references to John the Baptist, James, and Jesus of Nazareth, all written in the 90s AD.
Possible Interdependence: Some scholars argue that the Gospel of Luke/Acts may have been written after 93 AD and drawn on Josephus' Antiquities.
While the Gospels were written for religious communities, Josephus wrote for a Roman audience under imperial protection
The Herodians, a political faction loyal to the Herodian dynasty and Roman rule, played a crucial role in maintaining stability in 1st-century Judea and interacted closely with the Flavian dynasty, particularly through alliance, support during the Great Revolt, and shared elite interests. Key interactions included Agrippa II’s staunch support for Vespasian and Titus in 66-70 CE, the strategic role of Herodian allies, and the eventual transition of Judea to direct Roman rule under the Flavians.
Alliance in the Jewish Revolt: King Agrippa II supported Vespasian during the First Jewish-Roman War, providing troops and helping to secure the northern regions, which allowed the Flavians to focus on the siege of Jerusalem.
Presence in Flavian Rome: Following the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, Herod Agrippa II and his sister Berenice lived in Rome and were closely associated with the Flavian court, with Berenice having a famous romantic liaison with Titus.
Political Pragmatism: Herodians (members of the court/political faction) supported the Flavian shift to direct Roman rule over Jewish regions to preserve their own status and stability, rather than supporting a return to a local, independent kingdom.
Family Connections: Research indicates potential, though debated, distant familial connections between the Herodian line and the Flavian family through 5, Flavian Ancestors, Relatives & Descendants (academia.edu) and 3, 11 The Early Emperors - The Flavian Reconstruction (Oxford Academic).
Final Transition: Although the Herodians collaborated with the Flavians, the Flavians maintained a policy of classifying Judaea as a conquered province, ultimately leading to the elimination of the remaining Herodian kingdoms, with the last king, Agrippa II, dying by the turn of the 2nd century
Historical records indicate Edomites/Idumeans were involved in the Bar Kokhba revolt fighting against the Roman Empire.
Edom as Rome Metaphor: In Rabbinic literature originating around this time, "Edom" is frequently used as a, prophetic, and apocalyptic nickname for the Roman Empire, which they believed would be destroyed by the Messiah.
The Romans were quite open to accepting culture and religions from all of their conquered territories. In fact, many Romans were open to adopting the Jewish religion itself. The Jewish culture however was far more exclusive and set up barriers for those wishing to adopt the Jewish religion. And this was a source of conflict in the Roman Empire between the Romans and the Jews. From the perspective of the New Testament, all of these barriers seem to be eliminated in the teachings of Jesus - through Paul in a mission to convert Jews, not only non Jews.
The more the Romans attempted to assimilate Jewish tribal clans into the greater Roman Empire, the more extremist and rebellious certain factions became.
The Edomites (known as Idumeans post Alexander) were viewed by Romans as closely related to Jews.
After the Bar Kokhba revolt, Edomite areas were merged into the region renamed "Palestina" by Emperor Hadrian.
Idumeans through the Roman perspective and the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-136 CE).
Idumea and the Conflict: The Edomites lived in Idumea, a region south of Judea. Idumean contingents fought in Jerusalem during the earlier Great Revolt, but during the Bar Kokhba era, they were increasingly seen as assimilated or distinct from Judean Jews.
Renaming the Region: Following the brutal suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, Hadrian sought to erase Jewish nationalism.
Hadrian renamed the province from Judea to "Syria Palaestina" (Philistia). Idumea, which had existed on maps, was absorbed into this new, broader name, causing Idumean territory to disappear from regional history. (NOTE that the IDUMEAN EDOMITE PEOPLE did not just disappear)
Assimilation: Historians note that after the revolt, the population of Idumea often shared the fate of the Jewish population, and in the following centuries, the Edomites (Idumeans) were merged into the broader population of the region.
Edom as a Metaphor: In later Jewish rabbinic literature, "Edom" became a frequent, symbolic, or kabbalistic pseudonym for the Roman Empire, which carried out the destruction of the Temple and crushed the revolt
Midrash Tanchuma, Bereshit (Genesis) 7, the emperor Hadrian is specifically referred to as "the king of Edom" (הדריאנוס מלך אדום).
Context: The Midrash (Bereshit 7:1) recounts a story of Hadrian passing an elderly Jewish man planting a fig tree. Hadrian questions why an old man is laboring for fruit he might not eat, to which the man replies that he plants for his children, or for himself if he lives long enough.
Hadrian as "King of Edom": The text refers to him by this title in the context of him returning from a 3-year mission (often identified with the Bar Kokhba revolt) having destroyed the Temple and enslaved Israel.
Rabbinic Identification: In Rabbinic literature, "Edom" is frequently used as a metaphor for the Roman Empire, and by extension, Hadrian is identified as the archetypal wicked Roman ruler representing Esau/Edom.
The text describes his return to Rome, where he boasts to his courtiers: "After Hadrian, the king of Edom, conquered the entire world, he returned to Rome and told his courtiers: 'I command you to acclaim me a divine being, for I have subjugated the entire world'"
The Midrash Tanchuma (including sections on Bereshit/Genesis) is generally dated by scholars to the late Talmudic or early Geonic period, roughly between 400 and 800 CE.
While attributed to Rabbi Tanchuma bar Abba (4th century), the compilation in its current form emerged later, with specific passages often having complex, evolving histories.
Tanchuma Buber: The version published by Solomon Buber, based on unique manuscripts, is thought by some to contain earlier elements, though its definitive dating remains debated.
Composition Style: It is a homiletical Midrash, structured as sermons on the weekly Torah portion.
Context: It is distinct from Genesis Rabbah, another major commentary on Genesis created around 400 CE
Genesis Rabbah, a 5th-century rabbinic commentary on Genesis, uses the Roman Emperor Hadrian as a symbolic archetype of Rome's brutality and pride against Israel. He is frequently mentioned in debates with sages (e.g., Rabbi Yehoshua) and represents the "hands of Esau," specifically linked to the devastation following the Bar Kokhba revolt.
Key Hadrian References in Genesis Rabbah:
The Proud Ruler: Hadrian is identified alongside Solomon as one of the "proudest" figures, symbolizing the "hands of Esau" (Bereshit Rabbah 63:6).
The Destruction of Beitar: He is identified as the tyrant who committed massacres, with midrashic tradition mentioning he killed massive numbers in Alexandria.
Debates with Sages: Bereshit Rabbah 28:8 describes debates between Hadrian and Rabbi Yehoshua ben Ḥananya concerning resurrection and creation, where the sage mocks the emperor's ignorance.
The Temptation to Rebuild the Temple: Some narratives in the collection (specifically referencing ch. 64) touch upon the complex, shifting relationship, including the brief period where Hadrian appeared to allow the Temple to be rebuilt.
Genesis Rabbah treats Hadrian as a historical figure representing the ultimate enemy in the narrative of exile and redemption
BAR COHBAH REVOLT COIN. FIRST YEAR OF REVOLT AGAINST THE ROMANS 132-133 AD. AMPHORA + INSCRIPTION: ‘FIRST YEAR OF FREEDOM TO ISRAEL’ , REVERSE: INSCRIPTION READING: ‘SIMON/PRESIDENT/ISRAEL’
The Bar Kokhba revolt, led by Simon bar Kokhba, was the last of the major Jewish–Roman wars. It is also referred to as The Second Jewish Revolt, or The Third Jewish Revolt (counting the Kitos War, 115 – 117). The Roman army suffered heavy losses. It took six full legions, auxiliaries, and elements from as many as six more legions three years to crush the revolt. The Romans annihilated much of the Judean population. In 134, the they captured Jerusalem and Simon bar Kokhba was killed in 135. Legio VI Ferrata rebuilt the legionary fortress in Jerusalem and constructed a Roman temple at Golgotha. An altar to Jupiter was erected on the site of the Temple. The Jewish diaspora began as Hadrian barred Jews from Jerusalem and had survivors of the massacre dispersed across the Roman Empire. Many were sold into slavery. The Jewish people remained scattered without a homeland for close to two millennia.
We know from Suetonius and Tacitus that Vespasian went to Egypt, and entered the Temple of Serapis.He comes out with a miraculous capacity to heal the blind with spit.
And then we hear the same story in the New Testament, and Jesus.
-Note that the Gospels had not been written yet.
Emperor Hadrian could have developed an anti-Jewish decree on the Jews, specifically circumcision, stemming from his obsession with Greek culture which believed circumcision was un-pure and a barbaric custom which ought to be abolished.
Hadrian was born in Italica, in the present-day Andalusian province of Seville in southern Spain. It had one of the largest Jewish populations
During Hadrian's life, at the height of the Roman Empire, the Jewish population in Spain (Hispania) was likely concentrated in major Roman coastal cities and southern agricultural regions, particularly in Baetica (modern-day Andalusia) and along the Mediterranean coast. Key areas likely included Hispalis (Seville), Corduba (Córdoba), Gades (Cádiz), and coastal trading areas like Ibiza.
Jews in Spain: Ancient Period (BC – 1st Century CE)
c. 900s–500s BCE: Traditional accounts suggest early Jewish contact during the era of King Solomon or as trade agents for Phoenicians.
6th Century BCE: Some legends suggest Babylonian conqueror Nebuchadnezzar brought Jews to Spain as slaves after the First Temple's destruction (586 BCE).
218–202 BCE: Start of Roman control over Hispania (after Second Punic War). Substantial immigration of Jewish traders and colonists probably occurs during this period.
1st Century BCE: Increased Jewish presence in Iberia as part of the Roman diaspora, with established communities acting as traders and entrepreneurs under Roman protection.
Nabateans pushed Edomites (IDUMEEN) out of IDUMEAN but it is possible some integrated.
Nabatean reach and influence is extensive due to their trade in mhyrr which was highly sought out.
King Aretas IV (reigned c. 9 BC – AD 40) was the most powerful king of the Nabataean Kingdom, whose territory expanded into areas bordering or including parts of Idumea.
While he is best known for his conflict with Herod Antipas and his daughter Phasaelis, his reign saw the height of Nabataean influence in the Negev and southern Palestine, areas that historically overlapped with Idumean territory.
Territorial Reach and Influence: The Nabataean Kingdom under Aretas IV stretched from Arabia in the south northward past Petra, along the eastern side of the Jordan River, and controlled significant parts of the Negev and southern Palestine, extending trade routes toward Gaza.
Nabataean Centers in the Negev: The blossoming of Nabataean cities in the Negev—such as Avdat (Oboda), Sobata, Elusa, Nitzana, and Mampsis—occurred during his reign. These cities were situated in territory that overlapped with historical Idumea/Edom and controlled trade routes running through the region.
Conflict with Herod Antipas: Aretas IV had a daughter, Phasaelis, who was married to Herod Antipas (Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea). When Antipas divorced her to marry Herodias, Aretas invaded - (IDUMEAN ROMAN PROXY)
The resulting conflict, fueled by boundary disputes in the territory of Gilead, led to a crushing defeat of Herod's army, an action that demonstrated Aretas’ military power in the immediate vicinity of Judea/Idumea.
Some historical interpretations indicate that Nabataeans acted as heirs to the Edomite (Idumean) trade position. Nabataean influence over southern Palestine and the Negev during this time often brought them into direct contact and conflict with Herodian rulers, who governed Idumea under Roman supervision
Herod Antipas was pleased to meet Jesus, hoping to see him perform a miracle, but when Jesus remained silent in the face of questioning, Antipas mocked him and sent him back to Pilate. Luke states that these events improved relations between Pilate and Herod despite their earlier enmity.
According to Mark 6:14-29, John the Baptist was beheaded by the order of Herod Antipas. This dramatic event became inevitable after a cunning interplay between Herodias and her daughter, who remains nameless in the New Testament.
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