The root of English can be traced back to Britain in the 5th to 10th Centuries. This period contains the earliest documented evidence of the first version of the English language. English back then was not similar to modern English due to the merging of different languages and cultures (Oxford International English School).

As the phrase goes: language is organic, it evolves just like the human brain evolves. With centuries of evolution, old English has turned into the modern English that we are using right now.   

In this section, we are going to talk about some of the key factors in different time slots that affected the evolution of English.    

Old English (Anglo-Saxon) is the first English with documented evidence. It's history began with the Germanic language family who moved to Britain during the 5th and 6th centuries. 

The invaders who came from Northern Germany and Denmark formed the three main tribes in Britain. 

The three main tribes are the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Angles settled in the North of Britain while Saxons were located in the South with Jutes living in the Southeast. 

These settlers were later referred to as Anglo-Saxons, and their language was seen as the root of English (Melchers & Shaw, 2011).    

Latin had an influence on English development during the 6th century. With Christianization in Britain, Latin was introduced to the English language through the Church. 

Latin words related to religion such as “bishop” were absorbed and continue to be used in current English. Through scholarly and religious texts, Latin continued to impact English vocabulary throughout the Middle Ages (McCrum, Cran, & MacNeil, 2002).  

The development of English had a major shift after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. French, as the language spoken by the ruling class, was introduced to Britain and merged its features with the English language.

Similar to Latin, some of the French words were merged into English and formed new vocabularies. It is mainly in the fields of law, government, art, and culture, for example, "court," "judge," and "council".   

The beginning of Middle English is defined in this period as Old English starting to simplify its grammar and distinguish its Germanic features (Crystal, 2003).  

English underwent another evolution during the 15th century. The invention of press printing plays a key role in the standardization of English spelling and grammar.   

Before the appearance of press printing, English text was written by hand, which led to human error in grammar and spelling (McKitterick,2003).   

Press printing promoted the progress of standardization as the printed text needed to be understood by the public with variants of English based on their region. The work in the Renaissance period provided an expansion of vocabulary. William Shakespeare is one of the writers of the Renaissance period who contributed to the appearance of new words and expressions.   

In this period of time, the basic structure of modern English builds up its fundamentals by providing standardization in the English language (Crystal, 2019).  

The British Empire is one of the strongest empires in history with its colonies being spread across Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Similar to the situation in 9.1.2.3, the Norman Conquest of England brought the French to Britain, and the invasion of Britain brought the English to its colony. English was seen as the official language of governance, law, and trade.   

As Melchers and Shaw (2011) mention, the Indian subcontinent was an example of the spread of English. In 1600, the British East India Company was formed and had a connection with the Indian subcontinent. Through trading, English was widely used in the Indian subcontinent. Currently, India, which has a large population that can speak English, is defined in the outer circle, which will be further explained in the wiki-book later.

Due to globalization, access to other foreign cultures is easier. With the help of technology, you can have easy access to the content of other countries. 

For example, one can see a movie or television series produced by The United States of America or other countries from anywhere in the world. English can spread simply by being on the internet.

Hollywood films were dominating in most countries by the mid-1990s. You were able to watch a Hollywood film with actors and actresses speaking English in the film. For example, some excellent Hollywood movies like Titanic in 1997(Crystal, 2003).  

Globalization provided the opportunity for English to spread in the modern world by influencing people with culture spread through the internet.  

9.2.1 Formation

There is no doubt that English has become the most widely used language around the world. Over 170 countries currently recognize English either as an official language or incorporate its instruction as a key component of their educational curricula (Crystal, 2003, cited in Wang, 2011), leading to the emergence of diverse English models. Therefore, it is important to make a clear classification of these models. 

Kachru(1985,1992, cited in Wang, 2011) conceptualized the use of English around the world through the envisioning of three concentric circles: The Inner Circle, The Outer Circle and The Expanding Circle.

1.  The Inner Circle represents "the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English"(Kachru, 1992, p.366, cited in Wang, 2011). Those countries or regiones include UK, USA and Canada.

2. The Outer Circle presents "the institutionalised non-native varieties in the regions that have passed through extended periods of colonisation"(Kachru, 1992, pp.366-7, cited in Wang, 2011). Those countries or regiones include India, Hong Kong and Philippines.

3. The Expanding Circle refers to "the regions where the performance varieties of the language are used essentially in EFL contexts"(Kachru, 1992, p.367, cited in Wang, 2011). Those countries or regiones include China, Japan and Russia.

Three Concentric Circles Model, firstly introduced alongside the term "World Englishes" in 1985, is widely regarded as an "invaluable contribution regarding the spread and development of the English language worldwide (Mohammad , 2019)."

However, the Three Concentric Model has been criticized from various perspectives by many language researchers, including Kachru himself. The main drawbacks include:

1. Oversimplification （E.g., Received Pronunciation and Cockney, such Regional Varieties are simplified.)  

2. Unclear membership criteria for the circles  (E.g., In countries where multiple languages are widely used in society, it is challenging to determine which circle they belong to.)

3. Neglect of how English becomes a Lingua Franca in countries of the Outer and Expanding Circles 

4. The establishment of rigid borders based on specific historical events rather than current sociolinguistic data for the pigeonholing of English ownership 

5. The inappropriate use of native English speakers as a standard

(Graddol, 1997; Modiano , 1999; Mollin, 2006; Widdowson, 1998, Kachru, 2005; Bruthiaux, 2003; as cited in Mohammad , 2019).

To better reflect the current status of English usage and address the significant differences between countries in the same circle(Mohammad, 2019), some researchers have proposed modifications to the Three Concentric Circles Model.

Examples include:

1. Rampton's improved model (1990, cited in Mohammad, 2019), where the concept of nativeness is replaced with  that of competence, as the notion of native speaker is replaced with that of expert speaker, reflecting the understanding that native speaks are not necessarily synonymous with competence in English. 

2. Modiano (1999, cited in Mohammad, 2019) presents a centripetal circles model, where the inner circle is formed by experienced English communicators rather than native speakers, due to their “excessive regional accents and dialects” and inability to excel in communicating of English as an International Language(EIL) when the context requires it.

One commonality among these modifications is the redefinition of Inner circle, where native English speakers are replaced with expert English speakers or similar concept, aiming to correct the misconception that native English speakers are superior to speakers in Outer or Extending circles(Modiano, 1999; Rampton, 1990; cited in Mohammad, 2019).

Similarly, like the Three Concentric Circles, it is also criticized for its ENL concept and its unclear boundaries between ESL and EFL (Wang, 2011; Ironsi, 2021):

1. The concept of "ENL" can lead to the misunderstanding that all speakers in ENL regions use the same standard variety of English, which is perceived as superior to the varieties used in ESL or EFL regions(Wang, 2011). This misunderstanding result in the neglect of the diversity of English varieties in ENL regions and the value of the English varieties used in ESL and EFL regions, which may be more accessible to the local communities (Wang, 2011).

2. Distinguish between ESL from EFL also remains a long-standing weakness, as individuals living in urban areas of both ESL and EFL regions often exhibit similar patterns in English use, in contrast to individuals living in rural areas (Wang, 2011).

image 9.4.2 generated from  from copilot:Copilot | Microsoft 365

English isn’t just a single language; it comes with many variations. For one thing, British English, American English, Australian English, and Indian English, each one of them possess unique characteristics that affect how students learn and develop their language skills. Therefore, knowing the differences between them is the key to understanding English fully.

ESL (English as a Second Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students both learn English but in different settings. ESL students live in countries where English is the main language, which they are more likely to use it daily at school, work, or just out and about. On the other hand, EFL students learn English in their home countries, where it's not the primary language. A great example would be Hong Kong students, the majority of them tend to speak Chinese more frequently than English. As a result, their exposure to English is mostly limited to classroom lessons, which often focus on grammar and vocabulary since they don’t use English as much in daily life. This difference affects how the two learn and use the language.

In our globalized world, local forms of English—termed “World Englishes”—have surfaced, reflecting English's use in different cultural settings. For instance, Nigerian Pidgin English incorporates local lexicon and expressions unique to Nigeria, demonstrating how English evolves and adapts. Also the different accents between the variants, each of them are actually independent and unique. Therefore, embracing these variations can make lessons more relevant while promoting inclusivity and helping students appreciate the language’s diversity (Gao, 2010).

In the process of learning English, teachers play a significant role. The teacher's choice of model is crucial. Their background, teaching philosophy, and awareness of student needs strongly influence this decision, as well as the development of student’s language skills.

In order to maximize the quality and efficiency of teaching, it is necessary for educators to possess a strong grasp of the chosen English variant. On top of that, continuous training through workshops and courses can enhance teaching methods significantly. The British Council (2016) emphasizes that teacher proficiency in English, especially in diverse contexts, allows for more effective pedagogy.

In the classroom, not every student shares the same cultural background. And some might come from different countries, this situation is definitely not rare to be seen, especially in an international school. Therefore, culturally responsive teaching is essential, it acknowledges and celebrates students’ linguistic backgrounds. For example, a teacher incorporating Spanish vocabulary into an English lesson for bilingual students not only validates their linguistic skills but also enhances engagement (Ladson-Billings, 1994). This approach helps students feel valued and understood, boosting their confidence in learning, and improving their overall academic performance.

To further enhance the overall lecture quality, a learner-centered approach is vital for effective language teaching. By focusing on students' needs and interests, educators can create a more engaging and personalized learning experience.

A teacher’s job is definitely more than just reading aloud the notes, but also realizing students’ needs and weaknesses. So as to strengthen them, providing a tailor-made tutorial for students.

Not every student learns the same way. And their abilities might be different as well. Some might be better at speaking, some might be better at writing. In this case, differentiated instruction tailors lessons to suit according to their abilities and learning styles. For instance, in a mixed-ability classroom, a teacher might use visual aids and group discussions to explain a concept, ensuring that each student's needs are met. Research by Tomlinson (2001) shows that differentiated strategies lead to improved learning outcomes.