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2.1 Evolution of language
2.1 Evolution of language
There are ideas on the origins of language in early humans and the relationship between biological and cultural evolution. The role of nonverbal communication in spoken language development and the shift from spoken language to gesture-based communication have also been demonstrated. The content that follows will also go into social media's involvement in the current language shift as well as how social networks and communities affect language evolution. Lastly, several causes of language extinction, their effects on culture and identity, and potential initiatives for language revitalization are discussed.
2.1.1 The origins of human language
The origins of human language can be divided into two circumstances,biological and cultural evolution. Firstly,biological evolution means the mutation of body organs and produced sound. For instance, As the body goes through puberty, the larynx grows larger and thicker so that their voices become much deeper. There are various body parts like the vocal tract and larynx which play crucial roles in producing sounds and words. Through the process of evolution, people undergo effective communication by transmitting ideas with proper words and gestures.
Cultural evolution is change in a culturally transmitted system over time. Linguistic structure evolves culturally under pressure from learning and communication. The cultural transmission of language, based on its repeated transformation from grammar to data to grammar and so on. Young modern people can learn the history of several countries by learning various languages as languages are the most useful tools of transmitting the culture to our next generation. (Tamariz, M., & Kirby, S. (2015).
There are several theories have been proposed to illustrate the origins of language. The bow-wow theory is that language developed through the imitation of natural sounds. According to this theory, humans mimicked animal sounds to communicate with each other. For example, a person may have imitated a dog's bark to let another person know that a dog was nearby. In contrast, The Ding-Dong Theory was proposed by Dutch linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay in 1913. It says that body gestures are frequently used to communicate feelings and intentions. For example, people wave their hands when saying goodbye to others. This theory is representing the connection between physical gesture and orally produced sound. The yo-he-ho theory proposes that speech started with the rhythmic chants and grunts people used to coordinate their physical actions when they worked together. It places the development of language in a social context.PoliLingua. (n.d.). How did languages emerge?theories of their creation.
A proto-language is a language which was the common ancestor of related languages that form a language family. Language is constantly changing and evolving with time For instance, Proto-Indo-European is recognized as the reconstructed ancestor of many modern languages in Europe and South Asia. For example, The Lord of the Rings and Middle-earth Languages isone of the most famous uses of proto-language in literature can be found in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, where he created several languages spoken by different groups in Middle-earth. Tolkien was a philologist by profession, and he worked on the construction of these languages for several years before deciding to incorporate them into his fictional universe.
What is a Proto-Language? - Novlr Glossary. (n.d.).
2.1.2 The Role of Gesture in Language Evolution
Prior to the development of spoken language, early humans used gestures, facial expressions and body language to convey messages and emotions to others. Without the advanced language of modern time, they relied on non-verbal communication to share their thoughts and feelings. It is an effective way of sending and receiving messages from person to person. For example, you can communicate hunger through making a gesture pointing to your stomach or your mouth.
Gesture is one form of nonverbal communication. People use physical movement as the expression of inner thoughts and emotions. Gestures vary widely across cultures.In the United States, for example, a commonly accepted gesture of anger is holding up your middle finger, but this emotion can be expressed via a hand flick under the chin in Spain and Latin America or a thumbs up in Iran and Iraq. Gestures help to enhance spoken language such as hugging others rather than just saying ‘I love you’. This interplay between gesture and verbal communication underscores the importance of non-verbal cues in reinforcing and enriching linguistic exchanges.
The transition from gesture-based communication to spoken language marks a significant evolutionary milestone. Research indicates that gestures frequently accompany speech, particularly during children’s language development. Children often utilise gestures to complement their spoken language, aiding in vocabulary acquisition and enhancing comprehension. They always produce sounds and point to an object before knowing to say ‘I want this/that’. Furthermore, research on early communicative behaviours has emphasised gestures as the first means to convey and structure communicative intention.
Burkhardt-Reed, M. M., Long, H. L., Bowman, D. D., Bene, E. R., & Oller, D. K. (2021).
In evolutionary perspective, as early humans do not know any words, they usually use body gestures to communicate in a group to connect with other members and hold their social bond before the complex vocalisation development.
Burkhardt-Reed, M. M., Long, H. L., Bowman, D. D., Bene, E. R., & Oller, D. K. (2021b).
The gesture first idea was put forward by several prominent thinkers, such as Etienne Bonnot de Condillac in 1746 and Giambattista Vico in 1744, saying that language began as non-spoken gestures and signs. It proposed that all spoken languages come from gestures, which play an important role in vocalisation. Moreover, the co-evolution model suggested that gesture and speech are interconnected. Gestures basically facilitate verbal communication.
Although people use spoken language as their major communication method in modern times, gestures continue to play a vital role in transmitting ideas.human communication is inherently multimodal, so verbal and nonverbal communication are indispensable.
Burkhardt-Reed, M. M., Long, H. L., Bowman, D. D., Bene, E. R., & Oller, D. K. (2021c).
2.1.3 The Impact of Social Interaction on Language Change
The widespread utilisation of social media platforms in the digital era has significantly altered communication dynamics and impacted linguistic trends among many linguistic communities. Language evolution is significantly influenced by social media. Social media has broken down geographical and temporal barriers, enabling all internet users to communicate ideas through various spoken languages. Abbreviations, acronyms, and shorthand forms of communication have become commonplace due to the character constraints imposed by social media platforms such as Instagram and Twitter. Memes and neologisms are also encouraged by social media, and they have the potential to spread swiftly into common usage and further the evolution of language.Wildflowers. (2024, August 2)
Communities are the crucial part of shaping language and identity. Language serves as the recognition of a certain country or community. The variation of language facilitates the exchange of various cultures and ideas. People with different gender, ages or social status can also enjoy this modern platform to express your feelings or ideas by using many ‘fashion words’, especially for youngsters.
For example, Hashtags, which are metadata tags used to categorise content, serve as communicative functions and convey humour, irony, or commentary. Emojis and emoticons add a visual dimension to online communication, allowing users to express emotions, gestures, and reactions through pictorial symbols. Memes and internet slang are cultural artefacts that spread virally through social media, often consisting of images, videos, or text accompanied by humorous or ironic commentary.
There are both challenges and opportunities that come from the prevalent use of social media.social media platforms may perpetuate stereotypes and marginalise certain language varieties, but such digital platforms undeniably offer vast datasets for linguistic research and allow the rapid exchange of language.
The evolution of the English language has been significantly influenced by social media platforms. By integrating social media literacy into language education curricula and implementing policies promoting linguistic diversity and inclusivity, stakeholders can harness the transformative potential of social media while addressing its socio-linguistic implications.
2.1.4 Language Death and Revitalization
Language is a fundamental aspect of identity and culture, reflecting the unique experiences and perspectives of a community. Language change and death have been attributed to cultural issues such as globalisation and cultural assimilation. Social media has made it possible for people to communicate online and learn about other languages and cultures while also exchanging ideas. Additionally, modern individuals are exposed to more international entertainment and media, which improves their proficiency in foreign languages and makes them less interested in learning the languages and customs of their home countries. For example, the majority of young people are learning Korean because they have to understand the words to the K-pop songs that feature their favourite team.
Languages_Admin. (2023, April 17)
As languages represent a certain culture, such culture will become extinct when language death comes up.The death of a language means the loss of a dense cultural heritage and not to mention the passing away of a distinct human identity. If learning and communicating in major world languages, a certain native tongue may be lost. However, speaking dominant languages is essential in the global economy of today which fosters the extinction of esoteric languages.
Language preservation is essential for saving a culture. Documentation like making dictionaries, writing grammars, and recording speakers all help to archive a language. Teaching children to speak a language makes the language vital. Both kinds of effort are held responsible for preserving a language.Bilingual education programs for indigenous children almost universally involve teaching those children to read and write their ancestral language. It is also important to pass our culture to the next generation by educating children in our native languages.
Saving a language, preserving a culture. (n.d.).
2.2 Communication differences among species
2.2 Communication differences among species
Regardless of the myth of the origin of language, dissimilar species evolve their own communication systems. The systems among animals, humans or even plants are chiefly incompatible. The interrogation of whether humans can communicate with other species has remained and has been debated. This subject aids to comprehend the differentiation between species communication and thus whether interspecific communication exists, and how species use their language to shelter themselves and advance. Three sub-themes, which are the difference between species communication, language function among species and interspecific communication would be discussed with videos, music and AI-generated images. A summary of this topic will be stated at the end.
2.2.1 The overview of the communication difference among species
Communication among species specifies how organisms in the same species use diverse apparatus and methods to transmit signals and information. Signals can be visual, chemical, or tactile or they can take the form of sounds.(Elizabeth, 2010). In the dictionary, it demonstrates that activities such as defining,protecting territories and finding suitable mates involve communication. To adopt discrete environmental situations and needs, a variety of communication systems are developed among members of the same species.
The reason why language is crucial among species is the communication purposes. Different species seek different objectives. While humans convey knowledge transmission and the organisation of society, animals and plants shown in Figure 2.1 use the signal information for decision-making. With prior experience on receiving an identical kind of signal, harm could be avoided and they can find nutrients, shelter, and may also engage in assessing the situation.(Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2024) Owing to the variation of language complexity among species, varying degree of transmission will be done by each species.
Figure 2.1: a deer escape from danger ( image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/f3wJqtLfBrMANovG9 )
Through the evolution of language, organisms can interact and communicate with members of different species. Interspecies communication is an exceptionally broad term, encompassing everything from, for example, symbolic communication between humans and nonhuman animals to interactions between fungi and bacteria (Hogan & Kolter, 2006). Actions such as mutualism, predation, intraspecies or interspecies competition, commensalism and parasitism are examples of how communication between species occurs.
In different circumstances, there can be interspecies interaction between humans and nonhuman in the condition that no human language is used. To collaborate with species, an alternative way is to use body language to provide interaction with others. In the first instance , the language used by humans and others are divergent on the whole. For example, Figure 2.1 is an AI-generated picture about how different species communicate in a community. Interactions are narrowly carried out due to the barrier of language. Guidelines and exercises such as button communication in which they tape buttons to express their feelings or showing their body movement can be carried out for interaction.
Figure 2.2: species communication differences (image generated by Padlet )
2.2.2 Interaction and signals difference in species communication
A species can utilise great quantities of methods to communicate with others.
2.2.2.1 Visual Signal
The most usual signals animals and plants presented are visual.A visual signal is a type of information carrier that is detected through the sense of sight.(McGregor, 2019) In terms of plants, individual post-pollination flowers may reduce their advertising intensity, and thus their detectability by pollinators. In Figure 2.3, the flowers named Combretum Indicum transform their colour from pale pink to sharp red. The increase of colour intensity makes the flowers more visible from the view of the pollinators.
Figure 2.3 : Combretum indicum - an example of post-pollination flowers which have colour change in an inflorescence ( image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/wCNXrWqrWvnDPEWy5 )
2.2.2.2 Auditory Signal
Another main communication mode is auditory signals.
Auditory signals are animal-produced sounds that evolved via natural and sexual selection for the purpose of influencing the behaviour of perceivers.(Santos, 2022) In terms of animals, humans ourselves are a good example to produce auditory signals. Simply saying, air flow into and out from the lung would cause vibration of vocal cords. Then, different sounds can be produced.
Figure 2.4 how humans speak (image generated by Padlet )
Figure 2.5 humans speaking
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4Y4EQaw5oU
2.2.2.3 Chemical Signal
Species can also transmit chemical signals in order to receive and give information to each other.Chemical signals can be defined as messages transmitted through chemosensory modalities (smell and taste) and include things like pheromones, which are secreted chemical signals used to trigger a response in another individual.(Bruck, 2019) For example, female goldfish leak out some sex hormones from the gills in the water. The female-produced sex pheromones( a type of chemical signals) attract mature male goldfish for mating.
Figure 2.6 how chemical signals occurs in animals ( image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/JKDJogSdx64dKxsG9)
2.2.2.4 Tactile Signal
Tactile signals can be sent directly and seen obviously.Tactile communication refers to what we communicate through the sense of touch — through touching, or not touching each other in various ways.(Bacal, 2024) An example from animals is polar bears, the young polar bears called cubs will nuzzle and lick their mother so they can recognize each other in the huge polar bears community. To communicate with each other, they will do the action called ‘gaping’ with their mouth wide open.(Bears, 2024)
Figure 2.7 tactile communication among polar bears ( image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/9uyTC3vo4UEmE82d6 )
Figure 2.8 : different ways of communication
https://youtu.be/i74RbATjBk4?si=zY4nJjhQjhx7vYsj&t=14
2.2.3 Function of language among species
Human language and nonhuman communication are diverse. One hand, Language is a system of communication uniquely associated with humans and distinguished by its capacity to express complex ideas.(1. Design Features | Language: Essence & Origins, n.d.) On the other hand, ‘language’ used in nonhuman communication cannot be used to show their feelings.
2.2.3.1 Plants
In the aspect of plants,
A considerable amount of benefits of using language and communication are presented. In Figure 2.3, avoiding old flowers, increasing the proficiency of pollinator foraging and transfer of pollen are the advantages of communication. Therefore, it increases the opportunity of successful reproduction. The action of communication can also contribute to the community as sending visual signals reduces the repeated visits to flowers and prevents pollinators from staying long on the same pollinated flowers. (Yan et al., 2016)
2.2.3.2 Animals
In the aspect of animals, they communicate in order to increase the chance of reproduction and growth. Receiving different messages can help them escape from danger, find food sources and connect with members of the same species.
2.2.3.3 Humans
In the aspect of humans, they use language for everyday communication, argument, learning, negotiation, documentation, legislation and celebration.(Naus, 2017)
Figure 2.9 : people arguing ( image generated by Padlet)
Despite the dissimilar levels of language complexity, the main differences between human and animal communication are how the language system is built. Most animal communication systems are simple and understandable among their own species.Syntax has been found in animal communication but only humans appear to have generative, hierarchically structured syntax. (Zuberbühler, 2019) Also, not many species involve creativity in generating and comprehending different sentences such as ‘ today I wonder if I could fly in the sky’. On the other hand, people can continuously produce many new words or give some existing phrases meanings. In Figure 2., the word “ Rizz’ originally doesn't mean anything in English, but in fact, it means charisma on the internet.
Figure 2.10 The word Rizz ( image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/TE59qEyCbk3zTWaF9 )
To sum up this topic, as non-humans do not build well-developed communication systems, the functions of language such as expressing emotions and showing imaginations to others are eliminated.
2.2.4 Interspecies communication
Interspecies communication is how humans and other animal species communicate across species boundaries(Interspecific Communication, n.d.)
2.2.4.1 Natural ecosystem
In natural ecosystems, the interaction between species is vital to maintain the balance of the ecosystem and recycle of materials in the community.
2.2.4.1.1 Symbiotic Partnership
One of the relationships is symbiotic partnership. An example is the antennal tapping. The ants and termites use this action to recognize each other and exchange their food in the process. The ‘ follow-the-leader’ behaviour can regulate their ant teams and make sure that the ant following obey the disciple. (Tactile Communication – ENT 425 – General Entomology, n.d.)
2.2.4.1.2 Predation
Another relationship is predation. Some animals use their own ways to avoid danger. The basic example is Spicebush swallowtail caterpillar.These caterpillars mimic bird droppings in early stage and snake in final stage so birds and other creatures will take the risk to eat them. (Devlin, n.d.)
Figure 2.11 spicebush swallowtail caterpillar ( image downloaded from https://www.bbcearth.com/news/meet-the-fakers-of-nature )
2.2.4.2 Humans and animals
There is varying communication between human and animal communication. For example, most domesticated animals such as dogs and cats could use their body language to express their desires. If cats rub against humans, it indicates the interest in you and possession of their own elements. In Figure 2.12, if dogs shake their tails to the right, it means they are happy and excited.(Interpreting Tail Wags in Dogs | VCA Animal Hospitals, n.d.)
Figure 2.12 a dog shake his tail to the right ( image generated from Padlet)
As the above mentioned, human and non-human language systems are not the same, and thus more training and exercises can be done in order to improve the effectiveness of interspecific communication. One of the ways of effective communication is tapping buttons by the animals. Most intelligent animals such as dogs, cats and parrots can use the button tapping training to communicate their needs with humans.This method is also particularly beneficial for animals and allows them to release tension and find relief in a non-invasive way. (Vitality Living College, 2024) However, they only know how to interact with humans because they remember the sounds of each button and how humans react to each button. Indeed, they don't know what each button means in human language.
Figure 2.13 tapping buttons by dogs
https://youtu.be/6w3rkIKSbjo?si=c1nALQOFPBPYNDsh
In conclusion, this section involves the difference between species communication and how it affects their mental and social growth. Also, the topic about interspecific communication between humans and animals is further discussed.
2.3 Variation of Language
2.3 Variation of Language
Humans are the only species capable of using language, and even multiple languages are used by several groups of people. Some languages may also be similar in neighbouring regions. Different variations of language have their own sounds, grammar, letters, vocabulary and sentence structure. This subject will delve into how language variations are formed, and the reasons behind it. Images and videos will be provided with explanations. A conclusion will be conducted at the end.
2.3.1 What is Language variation
2.3.1 What is Language variation
Language variation is defined as the way language is used by different people or groups. Geography, history, social class are a few of the most popular factors influencing language variation. (Nordquist, R.2024, July 29).
There are several levels of language variation, such as phonological variation, lexical variation, syntactic variation, morphological variation, pragmatic variation, and semantic variation. (Wolfram & Schilling 2015) We can evaluate how different two languages are by using these levels. However, there are also variations within the same language, such as different dialects and formal tones.
Language variation is a natural and intrinsic part of human language. (Rubtcova, M., Pavenkov, O., & Pavenkov, V. 2016, October 15) Humans are born with the gift of language, and young infants are able to pick up language easily. There are many languages in the world, they coexist and interact. (Oluwaseun 2023, December 28) Languages contribute to forming our identities, it is easier to find people from the same origin when the same language is recognised.
Figure B.1 Baby learning how to speak (ai image generated by padlet)
Moreover, culture is often interacted with and influenced by language. Language as a transmitter helps spread knowledge and culture to other parts of the globe.
Here is a video on how languages and cultures interact and influence each other:
https://youtu.be/ActWzWajkKc?si=RONguIfieK09lh8w
Language variation through culture is also common. Variations such as lyrics, books, poems, and idioms are important parts of cultural texts.
2.3.2 How does geographical conditions affect language variations
2.3.2 How does geographical conditions affect language variations
Language often differs in different regions, and geographical conditions play a significant role in shaping language variations. Like the transfer of genetic variation through gene flow, language changes constantly as a result of its use in human interaction. Contact between speakers is most likely to happen when they are close in space, time, and social setting. (PLoS One 2019 June 12) The simplest way of having a group of people in the same space, time, and social setting is for them to be in the same geographical location. Speakers adapt their speech patterns to accommodate their most common conversational partners, their speech community. (PLoS One 2019 June 12)
Figure B.2 isolated village surrounded by mountains (AI image generated by Padlet)
Tobler’s First Law, “everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things.” (Tobler 1970) can be applied to language variation. Geographically close languages are more similar to each other than languages that are geographically distant. (Holam et al. 2007)
The idea of closer people with closer communication and exchange can be interpreted from this example. The closer the people are, the more they will influence each other, including language.
Political and administrative boundaries influence language variation. In Hong Kong, the use of biliteracy and trilingualism can show that language varies greatly in a single region. Both Chinese and English are the official languages of Hong Kong, citizens are able to change freely between the two languages. Plus to extend the idea of cultural exchange through language, people from Hong Kong can easily learn Chinese and English cultures from their daily use of several languages. As the government actively promotes the learning of multiple languages, it is evident that language variation can be influenced by political and administrative boundaries.
Figure B.4 Learning of multiple languages (ai image generated by Padlet)
Another factor contributing to the language variation is the level of urbanity and rurality. Say for example a rural village in north western China compared to a coastal urban city in China like Shanghai, most people from the village can only speak their local dialect, while most people from big cities can speak official mandarin. This is because the people from rural villages seldom leave their hometown and travel to urban areas, information and education are lacking behind that in big cities, while those from urban areas have the most exposure to different language varieties. Therefore language variation exists between levels of urbanity and rurality.
Figure B.5 a showcase of rural versus urban (image downloaded from https://www.wealthmeta.com/blog/rural-vs-urban-living-budgets-and-net-worth)
2.3.3 How does historical conditions affect language variation
2.3.3 How does historical conditions affect language variation
From a linguistic point of view, every language is always changing. You too have very likely noticed that your parents or your grandparents speak or spoke a little differently from you. And, if you have children or grandchildren, you have almost certainly heard them saying things that you would never say. Everywhere we look, we find differences in speech between the generations. (R. L. Trask 2009)
In the English language particularly, it can be divided into 3 periods of historical variations, namely Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. (Ellis 2022, July 12) Old English was a Germanic language. It was also a very different language from the English we speak today. Middle English emerged after 1066, when the Normans conquered England. As a result, French became the language of the ruling class, while English was spoken by the lower classes. This led to a number of changes in the English language, including a reduction in the number of inflections and grammatical rules. After Old and Middle English comes the third stage of the English language, known as Modern English, which began in the 16th century and continues to the present day. The Modern English period emerged after the introduction of the printing press in England in 1476, which meant that books could be mass-produced, and more people learned to read and write. As a result, the standardisation of English continued.
Here is a short video about the History of English:
https://youtu.be/iSSTv8-2358?feature=shared
In modern days, the emergence of technology and social media has helped evolve modern variations and global English. For instance, Slang is an informal nonstandard variety of speech characterised by newly coined and rapidly changing words and phrases. (Nordquist R. 2018 November 7) In 2024, slangs were quickly and widely spread to global English speakers with the help of technology and social media. Such newly developed slangs are for example, yap, pookie, rizz, skibidi, and slay. These slang words are not regional but instead used by all speakers of English. However, people who are less active on the internet may face difficulties understanding such newly emerged slang words as the meaning of such phrases may not be obviously linked with the spelling. This is why new slang words are most often used by teenagers and young adults, since they are the most active age group on social media.
Figure B.6 Modern slang words (image downloaded from https://www.sassymamahk.com/parenting-slang-terms-tweens-teens/)
2.3.4 How does social class affect language variation
2.3.4 How does social class affect language variation
In this part, the scope will be reduced down to the situation in the United Kingdom for a deeper understanding.
Social class and social structures are factors affecting language variations. A sociolect is a distinct variation of a language that is used by members of a specific social class. People with ascribed status, which means that the status is assigned involuntarily, tend to have more distinct and prestigious sociolects than people with achieved status, which means that the status is earned through hard work. Taking the United Kingdom as an example, it's a hierarchical society with a lot of ascribed status based on family name. By using a distinct sociolect, it can associate the speaker with prestige and status. The upper class in the United Kingdom often speak Received Pronunciation (RP), also known as “The Queen’s English”. (Advance Consulting for Education. 2019, January 9. Language and social class [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dsIgQW0Jqtc)
Here is an example of the Queen’s English:
https://youtu.be/kNqCEAgJg14?si=Fewa8VtDLisDBgQK
Lexical choices and the accent between the variations of sociolects in the United Kingdom is also obvious. In some cases, the differences can make a person sound more posh. For example, a posh person would say “papa” instead of “dad”, “valet” instead of “male servant”, and “old bean” instead of “mate”. In Conservative Received Pronunciation, the consonant sounds are articulated, and the vowel sounds are in different places compared to Standard Southern British English, which is used by most people in the middle and lower class. (Hudson, J.2024, March 8)
The distinct ability to access education also deepened the divergence of sociolects. In the United kingdom, Conservative Received Pronunciation was taught in private schools and was strongly associated with a certain authority and prestige. (Hudson, J.2024, March 8) For other people who could not afford private schools would not be able to learn it.
It is strenuous for people who are not from the upper class to learn to speak Conservative Received Pronunciation as marriage from one social class to another is not very common, plus a lot of hiring decisions inside the United Kingdom are made based on how someone speaks. Furthermore, only around 3% of British people can speak Conservative Received Pronunciation. Oftentimes these are privileged rich people or that they are the descendants of nobles.
2.4.1 Language in technology
There is an inseparable link between language and technology. Technology is a driver behind the evolution of technology, creating more words that are used in our daily lives. Not only does technology drive the creation of new words, but it also enhances humans’ language ability. For example, the advent of language learning tools like Duolingo opens the door for more learning opportunities, enabling humans to brush up their language proficiency at their own pace.
There is an indispensable relationship between language and technology. In fact, they are interrelated in quite a few ways, with online education being a walking portrayal. The concept of online language acquisition entails gaining language proficiency using digital platforms like websites, mobile apps and virtual classes. (The evolution of online language learning.) (2024b, May 2) By virtue of technological advancement, humans can gain access to online learning platforms to brush up their language proficiency at their fingertips. Language learning apps ranging from Duolingo to Lingoda are commonly used from around the world. All these language-learning apps are the catalysts for boosting humans’ language aptitude.
Apart from online education, language is also related to the emergence of voice assistants and virtual assistants. The advent of voice assistants, whether it be Siri or Google Assistant, is highly associated with language as well. Some companies are developing multilingual virtual assistants to address market demands. Virtual assistants are progressing beyond simple question-and-answer formats to solving complex queries. Today, AI-driven virtual assistants communicate in multiple languages easily, and large language models. (Shaip-Admin, 2023) For example, a restaurant menu in Japanese can be translated to English with the use of virtual assistants and vice versa.
To put it in another way, there is an inextricable link between language and technology. Not only does it facilitate the communication between humans and machines, but it also leverages humans’ language ability.
2.4.2 How technology drives language evolution
There are several ways in which technology affects language evolution. These will be discussed in the following.
Language evolution has much to do with communication platforms, from Instagram to Twitter, from TikTok to Threads. By virtue of humans’ increasing emphasis on convenience and efficiency when they are texting each other, new vocabulary, slang and abbreviations have been introduced. For example, abbreviations whether it be OMG (oh my god) or FOMO (fear of missing out) have risen to fame due to the appearance of social platforms.
In figure 1, the slang ‘LOL’ means laugh out loud, which is used to describe something that is very funny. In 1989, Wayne Pearson says he wrote LOL in a chat room after his friend "Sprout" said something that made him laugh so loud it echoed off his kitchen walls. Tam, J. (2015, August 11).
In figure 2, the slang "Sus" is short for "suspicious," according to Urban Dictionary, and it represents a distrust of something. "Sus" as a noun also means "suspect" and is "usually used to define someone or something that looks suspicious or untrustworthy," says the website. (2024, July 24). TODAY.com.
Take the slang ‘selfie’ as an example, The word "selfie" was even chosen as the "Word of the Year" in 2013 by the Oxford English Dictionary, which has the following entry for the word: "A photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically with a smartphone or webcam and uploaded to a social media website." Bellis, M. (2020, January 3).
2.4.3
The use of technology in language learning is actually a double edged sword. In terms of the pros, the most significant one is that it opens the door for more learning opportunities, enabling humans to immerse themselves in learning languages without any constraints. In the wake of technological advancement, it is of relative ease for humans to enhance their language proficiency. For one thing, with an avalanche of resources readily available online, be they language learning apps or video clips, humans can brush up their language ability at their fingertips. For another, humans can acquire more language-related knowledge without any time constraints in the sense that the need of having a physical teacher in front of them is eliminated.
Online platforms, mobile apps, and websites offer a wide range of educational materials, including interactive lessons, vocabulary exercises, grammar explanations, and multimedia content. Learners can access these resources anytime and anywhere, making language learning convenient and flexible. Verbalplanet. (2023, July 12)
Not only does technology pave the way for more learning opportunities, but it also enables humans to learn at a better pace. Technology allows for personalised language learning experiences tailored to individual needs and preferences. With adaptive learning platforms using algorithms to assess learners' strengths and weaknesses and providing targeted content and exercises accordingly, learners can focus on areas that require improvement, ensuring efficient and effective language acquisition. Verbalplanet. (2023, July 12)
In spite of the aforementioned benefits, learning languages through technology also comes with great sacrifices, one of which is the lack of social interaction.
Given that learning a language requires one to communicate with others, the absence of interactive sessions will stifle discussion among humans. With the lack of communication among humans, hardly can ideas be exchanged. In the dearth of human interaction, it is virtually impossible for humans to practise.
Apart from the lack of human interaction, technology may potentially deteriorate one’s language ability. As apps such as Grammarly and Chat GPT can auto-correct the grammar of a paragraph, if not an essay, the ones who lack self-discipline may misuse them. This, on the contrary, will hinder them from improving their language proficiency.
2.4.4 How can technology preserve languages
Technology plays an indispensable role in preserving languages that are on the verge of extinction. Digital dictionaries and databases are testimonies illustrating this. With technological advancement, online platforms can compile extensive dictionaries and databases that document vocabulary, grammar, and usage examples of languages, with Poio being an example.Poio is a keyboard that collects endangered language data from diverse sources, including Wikipedia articles and digitised dictionaries, into ready-to-use form for both computational linguistics research and apps, such as the predictive keyboard which the researchers developed for 27 endangered languages. Besides aiding researchers like themselves, the Poio creators hope their product will aid younger generations in learning their communities' languages. They are now working on improving the quality of their keyboard's text predictions, expanding it to more languages, and support for offline use. Thanks to Poio and similar projects (such as the indigenous languages keyboard developed by the Canada-based First Peoples' Cultural Council), what was once a common convenience only for major languages is becoming accessible for minority languages.(| Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal, n.d.)
Below is a video about how technology can revitalise languages
https://youtu.be/8ujpCG9MbuQ?si=tp7itZqhrvMLnebH
As mentioned in the video, machine learning can analyze a language, which can be used to create stories to teach reading skills. This is essential to the preservation of languages, especially for tribes.
2.5 Disappearances in language
2.5 Disappearances in language
Language endangerment and disappearance are worth discussing. This is because they are essential in terms of cultural inheritance and social justice. For example, in China, there are multiple languages, and within each language lie distinct cultures, traditions, and historical anecdotes. All of these are lost when a language dies out, leading to cultural deprivation. Diversity in languages represents the depth of human nature and consciousness. Additionally, language loss often occurs within the context of social inequalities, exacerbating human rights issues. Scholars have shown that documenting endangered languages brings value to language research, offering theoretical insights into humanity's use of language. Language extinction also poses severe challenges to policymaking and educational efforts. Addressing this subtopic is worthwhile because it helps nurture individualism and raises awareness about the lack of uniformity among languages.
2.5.1 Causes of disappearance of languages
2.5.1 Causes of disappearance of languages
Language is an essential element of humanity, and its existence and evolution have reached the point of being endangered and in need of intervention. The causes of this phenomenon are numerous. One of them is the process of globalisation, which involves the unification of cultures. The growing use of powerful languages such as English and Mandarin leads to the decline of languages spoken at home, particularly among the youth who migrate for work or education.
Colonialism has historically been responsible for the loss of language since the invaders needed the native people to speak their language, which was enforced in schools. This way of doing things has also been embedded deeply at the roots of many, and after that, several people have become cut off from their languages and culture.
An image of colonialism
The influence of population growth also cannot be overlooked. People who move to the cities learn the language of the majority in order to fit in despite the consequences on their native tongue. In addition, some people may choose to use their native languages less or not at all because of the negative connotations that come with the language.
An image of overpopulation
When intergenerational transmission is not practised, cultural loss occurs. Children are unlikely to speak a language if their parents do not teach it. Also, it is worth mentioning that the focus of this active kind of bilingualism that technology and the internet often encourage is on the majority language rather than providing support for minority languages.
2.5.2 Impact on culture and identity
2.5.2 Impact on culture and identity
Impact on culture and identity
The vanishing of languages hinders cultural and personal identities, which brings about particular outcomes for individuals and societies. One of the effects that can be very deep and direct is cultural deprivation. Every unique language encompasses the histories, practices, and ways of living of certain people, which are usually brought out very well. When a dialect is no longer spoken, traditional skills, stories, and folklore related to that dialect are also likely to become extinct, causing a loss in cultural diversity.
Additionally, language is the most critical factor in a person’s identity. Quite a number of people view their mother tongue as a fundamental aspect of self in a community. Language loss can foster identity issues for speakers of such languages as they may have cultural dissonance with their cultural heritage. In such cases, feelings of being out of place and confusion may occur especially among the younger generations who may not be able to speak their native language.
The loss of languages also brings about other effects on society as a whole. It can weaken the relationships within the community since language is the primary tool for communication and sharing experiences. The younger generation may also find it hard to relate to the older generation due to a lack of foreign language skills, which often serves to bridge culture gaps. The younger generation learns different cultures and incorporates them into their own. Moreover, even oppressed minorities may face increased social marginalization.
An image showcasing generation gap
2.5.3 Efforts to preserve endangered languages
2.5.3 Efforts to preserve endangered languages
Efforts to preserve endangered languages
Language preservation activities are necessary for supporting the cultural plurality and heritage of communities across the globe. One of the main approaches is documentation ,which involves, among other things, capturing recordings of native speakers along with their dictionaries and grammar. This way, these assets are prepared for maintenance activities, ensuring that the information about the language itself is not lost.
Language education helps address the problem of language endangerment. For example, bilingual education in schools provides children with both the most common language and the language of their ancestors,which helps them feel proud of their heritage. Language classes conducted outside the educational system for all age groups also break the language barrier and foster communication.
An image of language education
Community efforts such as those aimed at restoring dying languages are crucial. Various social functions, such as cultural practices like dance and music increase the younger generation’s attention and interest in language . Initiatives that encourage older people and young people to come together enhance respect for elders while promoting the teaching of languages among family members.
Last but not least,technology has become a powerful tool for language preservation. Mobile apps and online platforms, like Kahoot, provide valuable resources for language learning.
An image of Kahoot
2.5.4 The importance of linguistic diversity
2.5.4 The importance of linguistic diversity
The diversity of languages carries significant value for the global society,primarily due to its contribution to cultural preservation, social integration as well as economic growth.
To begin with, linguistic diversity plays a significant role in the maintenance of cultural values. For example, every language embodies specific values, customs, and perceptions. It is invaluable to its speakers because it represents their identity. With the extinction of languages, a lot of culture is lost, including the people’s way of life and values that define societies. By encouraging linguistic diversity, people can appreciate their heritage and instill a sense of belonging in them.
Furthermore, linguistic variety enhances unity and peace in an age of globalization and internationalization. Multicultural interactions enhance intergroup communication and cooperation,which is very important for fostering peace by reducing biases towards other people’s beliefs and making conflicts less likely to occur. Thus, advocating for linguistic diversity enables societies to promote inclusion and appreciation where everyone’s voice is heard.
An image of multicultural interactions
Last but not least,The study of language diversity also provides insight into human biological and psychological development, including how we learn language, what languages our brain accepts, and how our brain processes language in reading and speech.
(Language diversity. (n.d.). Leiden University)
Comprehension questions ( Chapter 2)
Please answer the following 10 multiple-choice questions.
1. What does the Bow-Wow Theory in linguistics propose?
A) Language developed from instinctive emotional expressions and exclamations.
B) Language originated from imitations of natural sounds found in the environment.
C) The relationship between sounds and meanings is arbitrary and based on social agreements.
D) Certain phonetic sounds universally convey specific meanings across languages.
(Key: D)
2. Which of the following statements best describes the influence of social networks and communities on language evolution?
A) Social isolation leads to the creation of standardised language forms that remain unchanged over time.
B) Language evolves primarily due to random mutations in vocabulary and grammar without external influences.
C) Social networks facilitate the spread of linguistic innovations and variations, affecting language change over time.
D) Communities with strict linguistic norms prevent any changes in language, maintaining a stable linguistic environment.
(Key:C)
3. Which one is/are the example(s) of chemical signals?
(1) Mary smells nauseous
(2) Tom sweat a lot
(3) Yoyo shouts at someone
(4) A banana is eaten by a monkey
A. (1)(3)
B. (2)(4)
C. (1)(3)(4)
D.(1)(2)(4)
(Key: D)
4. Which one is/are the example(s) of the difference(s) or similarities between human and non-human language?
A) human speaks but non-human doesn't speak
B) human could express emotion and complex ideas but non-human
C) Both human and non-human have creativity in communication
D) None of them interact with each other in communication
(Key: B)
5. What period of English does Shakespeare use?
A) Old English
B) Middle English
C) Early Modern English
D) Modern English
(Key: C)
6. Can Language act as a cultural transmitter?
A) Yes
B) No
(Key: A)
7.Which of the following is not a benefit of using language learning apps?
A) More personalized learning experiences
B) Lack of time constraints
C) More human interaction
D) More resources readily
(Correct Answer *C. More human interaction)
8. Which of the following has contributed to the evolution of language such as the rise of abbrevitions and slang
A) The use of traditional media
B) Communication platforms like Instagram and Twitter
C) Increased face-to-face interactions
D) The decline of written language
(Correct Answer:** B. Communication platforms like Instagram and Twitter)
9.
10.
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