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4.1 Introduction of Functional Grammar
4.1 Introduction of Functional Grammar
The definition of functional grammar is to emphasize the relationship between language and the function in communication. According to Michael Halliday theory of systematic functional grammar, it looks the intended meaning of speakers and forms of expression. For example, emotion. With the emotion, people are able to understand the meaning of the sentence instead of only words. In this chapter, the importance of functional grammar will be discussed.
Structural VS Functional Grammar
Structural VS Functional Grammar
Firstly, structural grammar is an approach for emphasizing the formal aspect of language. According to Nichols and Johanna’s (1984) theory of structural grammar, structural grammar concentrates on the syntax and the phonology of linguistic expression. Structural grammar is concerned with the mechanics of sentence formation, it employs a tree diagram to represent the hierarchical representation, these representations are sentence(S), Noun phrase (NP), Verb phrase (VP) and Prepositional phrase (PP). For example, The cat sat on the mat. The cat is the noun phrase (NP) in the sentence, sat on the mat is the verb phrase (VP) in the sentence.
Second, functional grammar is focused on how language is utilized to convey meaning and achieve communication with special words. For example, subject and object. It investigates how components of a sentence create a grammatical function. According to Kay’s (1979) theory on functional grammar, functional grammar is not only focused on the grammatical competence of a speaker, but it focuses on 4 perspectives, theme, rheme, process and circumstances. For example, The children played in the park. The theme in the sentence is the children, the rheme is played in the park, the process is played, and the circumstances is the park. These relationships can be concerned between the agent and the patient. This is how functional grammar analyzes a sentence
In conclusion, structural grammar and functional grammar both provide an insight into English language study. However, their difference is visible. Structural grammar is more focused on the systematic framework for understanding the grammatical rules. Functional grammar focused on practical utilization in the communicative contexts. By learning these types of grammar can create a larger understanding of language.
4.2 Concept of Functional Grammar
4.2 Concept of Functional Grammar
Language serves as an important indicator in communication. We use this indicator to discuss the events that happen around us, involving describing the events in our minds. We also use languages to connect and interact with others, to influence others. Moreover, in different scenarios, we have to plan and organize our own words in ways that fit into different settings and context. To smoothly achieve the above functions, Systemic Functional Grammar comes in handy.
In Systemic Functional Grammar, language has three primary metafunctions/ meanings, including ideational metafunction (which is then split into logical and experiential meaning), interpersonal metafunction/meaning, and textual metafunction/meaning. With these three meanings, it is more convenient for humans to understand one another.
4.2.1 Concept of Experiential Metafunction
In the aspect of experiential metafunction, as suggested by Halliday (2014), ‘language comprises a set of resources for referring to entities in the world and ways in which those entities act on or relate to each other.(p.92)’ language describes the external world and internal experiences. To analyze a clause in terms of experiential meaning, four labels: Actor, Process, and Circumstance are used.
Example of clause analysis in terms of experiential meaning:
4.2.2 Concept of Interpersonal Metafunction:
One of the main purposes of interpersonal metafunction is to establish and maintain social relations, or in simple words, just as Thompson (2014) suggested, interpersonal metafunction means ‘using language to interact with other people(p.30)’. To analyze a clause in terms of interpersonal meaning, labels: Mood (Finite+Subject), Residue (Predictor, Complements and Adjunct) are used.
Example of clause analysis in terms of interpersonal meaning:
4.2.3 Concept of Textual Metafunction
This metafunction closely links with the organization of text. Thompson (2014) sees textual metafunction as a way speakers construct their messages that fit into the scenario and event that they are in. To analyze the clauses in terms of textual meaning, labels: Theme and Rheme are used.
Example of clause analysis in terms of interpersonal meaning:
Figure 2.1: a person shouting (image generated by Padlet)
4.2.4 Process:
Process is the core clause, which is mainly about the action or the shared experience that the participants are involved in (Halliday, 2014), usually expressed by verbal groups in the clause.
Example,
Hayley found out that she had high blood pressure.
The word ‘found out’ is the process of the sentence.
Types of process:
i) Material Processes:
involves actions done by the ‘doer’
for example, sitting, running etc
ii) Mental Processes:
about the doer’s emotions and thoughts.
for example, mental processes like, thinking, imagining etc.
iii) Relational process
showing the relationship between two states of being -eg ‘is’
iv) Behavioral process
which are related to human physiological actions
eg laugh, stare, examine
v) Verbal process
Thompson (2014) sees as “verb of ‘saying’(p.106)”, for example, scream,shout etc.
4.2.5 Participant:
Participants are the things involved in the process, which include humans, non-living things, etc. there can be different roles depending on the process in the sentences:
Actor (doer of material process)
Goal (the entity affected by the action of the doer)
Sensor (entity in mental process )
Carrier (entity in relational process)
Example:
4.2.6 Circumstance:
It is realized by circumstantial Adjuncts, and they provide extra context to the process, eg ‘why’, ‘when’. Etc.
Example:
Jennifer moved to LA three years ago.
“Three years ago” is the Circumstance.
4.2.7 Residue
Residue is the term for the clause that is not the Mood when analyzing clauses in terms of interpersonal meaning.
A. Predicator
There can only be one predicator in any clause, it expresses the process which the Subject is involved in.
Example: Joseph looks up at the ceiling.
“Looks up at” is the predicator.
B. Complements
A clause may have one or two Complements. As an element in the Residue, it is realized by a nominal group (possible Subjects, but not chosen). However, the position of attributive Complements cannot be switched with the Subject.
4.3 Advantages of Functional Grammar
4.3 Advantages of Functional Grammar
After comparing Structural and Functional Grammar, advantages are shown. A more holistic understanding of how meaning is constructed and interpreted was provided by taking into account the situational and cultural context.
Figure 3.1 image from: https://en.ephoto360.com/2024/10/671744a0240a3.jpg-s30-b1
4.3.1 Flexibility of sentence structure
4.3.1 Flexibility of sentence structure
It allows multiple ways to describe the same experiential meaning. Because it focuses on meanings behind the sentence and function the sentence performs.
Figure 3.2. image from: https://images.app.goo.gl/5DhiMDibX4uPAgPA7
Example:
1) Tom chases Jerry in the house.
Actor Process goal Circumstance (location)
2) Jerry was chased at the house.
Goal Process Circumstance (location)
3) Jerry took out a cheese for dinner.
Actor Process Product Occasion
4) For dinner, Jerry took out a cheese.
Occasion Actor Process Product
5) A cheese was taken out by Jerry for dinner.
Product Process Actor Occasion
For Structural Grammar:
1) Tom chases Jerry in the house.
2) Jerry took out a cheese for dinner.
Who Did what In what circumstance
While different sentence patterns are used(for functional grammar), it is easier for us to change the structure of our sentences to enrich our passage.
Functional Grammar, as a dynamic system, provides up-to-date sentence patterns. The ability of functional gramma analyzing modern text is a more accurate reflection of nowadays language pattern compared to structural grammar.
4.3.2 syntax, semantics and pragmatics
4.3.2 syntax, semantics and pragmatics
Syntax(form) is the structure and order of words in a sentence. Semantics(meaning) is the meaning behind the text. Pragmatics(use) is what the language is used to perform the writer/speaker’s intended outcome. The relationship between these three are base on the in-text topic.
Figure 3.3. Image generated using stable diffusion web from the prompt ‘A boy chatting with a girl at a park.’
Example 1 (same in syntax & semantics, different in pragmatics):
Tom: “I saw your cat.”
Mary: “Oh really? Where did you see her?”
In this case, Tom is informing Mary. From Mary’s response, we can tell Mary didn’t know Tom met her cat. One possibility is that Mary let her cat go out of her home freely, so she didn’t know where her cat had visit. In this case, Tom is saying this sentence to start a conversation with Mary. Another possible reason is that Mary lost her cat, so Tom provides clues to help her find her cat.
4.3.3 Analyze Ambiguous Experiential Meaning
4.3.3 Analyze Ambiguous Experiential Meaning
When having ambiguous sentences, we can gather all its meanings(usually two meanings), and choose the meaning base on topic or the speaker’s stance.
Example
→He’s quite the character.
A) He has a quirky or amusing personality; B) He may be difficult to work with, or not obeying all the rules.
→He is a big help.
A) He is very helpful, help people a lot; B) He consumes many resources on helping people.
Fun test:
When you are communicating with British people, Do you know what they mean if they say the following sentences?
1) That’s not bad.
2) I hear what you say.
3) With the greatest respect…
4) I'll bear it in mind.
5) I would suggest…
6) That is a very brave proposal.
These are some good examples of using cultural background to analyze the text.
Figure 3.4 From: https://images.app.goo.gl/mnWqMwgdnijoUToJ8
Figure 3.5 From from: https://golocalise.com/blog/interpreting-the-truth-behind-british-niceties/
4.3.4 (Advantage on) Interpersonal meanings
4.3.4 (Advantage on) Interpersonal meanings
Functional Grammar is better when differentiating 'statements' (declarative mood) from ‘questions’ (interrogative mood). It considered how language is used to establish and maintain social relationships, express attitudes, and manage interactions. Enable readers to better analysis the mood and purpose.
Functional Grammar is considering a bigger picture, as it include:
→ Contextual Emphasis: Analysis of social roles of participants, the formality of the situation, and the purpose of the interaction help explain the relationship between use of words and their meanings.
→ Speech Functions: Functions like statements, questions, offers, and commands, provide information or elicit a response.
→ Politeness and Power: analysis the effect of constructing social hierarchies and politeness strategies. Use of words may be the result of levels of politeness and social distance.
→ Interpersonal Metafunction: Showing how we negotiate relationships and express interpersonal meanings.
Example:
statements:
You seem tired.
They gave me an offer.
questions:
Are you free tomorrow?
Can you ride a bicycle?
Will you join the ceremony?
Would you donate to that organization?
Could you find his email?
offers:
Could you help me submit that document?
May you help me submit that document?
Please help me submit that document.
commands:
Could you please be quiet?
May you lower your voice?
You may start preparing before the event starts.
Please be there on time.
promise:
I will be there soon.
I would be there on time.
From the example, it is observed that the same words perform different functions. Words like can, will, would, could, may, please perform different functions.
4.3.5 The concept of ‘Finite’
4.3.5 The concept of ‘Finite’
Finite is the first verb after the subject, which carries: tense, modality (e.g., certainty, volition, prediction), number, ect. They mark the temporal and relational context of the sentence.
Figure 3.6 Image generated using Padlet from the prompt ‘a men cook strawberry tea chicken wings’
tense:
→He is cooking some strawberry tea chicken wings. (now)
→He cook some strawberry tea chicken wings. (Recently/ just now)
→He cooked some strawberry tea chicken wings. (At a moment in the past)
Modality:
1) certainty: He could<might<may<must know how to cook Coca Cola-chicken wings.
2) volition: He would/will cook some strawberry tea chicken wings.
3) prediction: He have to/must/had better/ought to/should/need to/supposed to cook some strawberry tea chicken wings.
Number:
→He cooks strawberry tea chicken wings.
→He cook some strawberry tea chicken wings.
4.3.6 Theme and Rheme
4.3.6 Theme and Rheme
Theme: “Theme refers to the first element (phrasal) of the sentence; it is ‘the point of departure’ of a sentence.” In other words, it should be the focus of the reader.
Figure 3.7 Image generated using Padlet from the prompt ‘reader using magnifier to read from a list’
Rheme: Main message/information added to describe the theme. To update readers on things related to the theme.
Example:
→ Three true crime podcasts lovers investigate a suspicious murder in the Arconia. (Ask readers to focus on character)
→ In the Arconia, three true crime podcasts lovers investigate suspicious murder. (Ask readers to focus on place)
→ Suspicious murder in the Arconia was investigated by three true crime podcasts lovers. (Ask readers to focus on the character of the event.)
→ An investigation of a suspicious murder in Arconia was conducted by three true crime podcasts lovers. (Ask readers to focus on the event.)
Figure 3.8 Image generated using Poe(Bot: ArtSketch) from the prompt ‘Three people standing at the front of the Arconia. Include the whole building of the Arconia.’
Meaning and message are actually the same for four sentences.
The first sentence focuses the reader on the identity of the main character, true podcasts lovers, in order to link with the reason behind their actions. The second sentence emphasizes on the place of the event, to provide information of the place. The third sentence mentions the object first, reminds the reader there is a murder and provides additional information to describe the murder. The forth sentence updates readers on the ‘what’ and ‘who’ of the investigation.
4.4 Interaction: Form & Function and Accuracy & Acceptability
4.4 Interaction: Form & Function and Accuracy & Acceptability
4.4.1 Form (Mood)
“Form” is the mood of a clause, and it can be categorized into indicative and imperative mood. To be more specific, indicatives include declarative, exclamative, and interrogative. The general idea of indicative mood is to provide information or to communicate while imperative mood is to request or order. Lock (1996) explains that we can identify the mood of a clause simply by looking at its structure.
Declarative mood: [Subject^Finite]
“The cat is sleeping.”
In this clause, “The cat”, the subject is followed by the finite “is”.
“I am sick of you.”
In this clause, “I”, the subject is followed by the finite “am”.
Before moving on to the speech act (which we will focus on in the next session), the declarative mood is typically understood as making statements or expressing opinions.
Figure 4.1: Performing a declarative mood (Image downloaded from: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRP6QjySUe2Qx05NdeCJ6Z5jwJMARk0HlogB756mBQAgH6JNca-ruG1G2yLCzjA2U_3mAU&usqp=CAU )
Exclamative mood: [Wh-Subject^Finite]
“How lovely she is!”
This clause starts with the Wh- word “How”, followed by the subject “she” and the finite “is”.
“How fast John runs!”
Likewise, this clause starts with “How”, followed by the subject “John” and the finite “runs”.
So, what does “lovely” and “fast” function here? Together with the Wh- words they represent the missing element in complement (“How lovely”) and adjunct (“How fast”). The exclamative mood typically shows strong emotions like surprise, affection, or excitement.
Figure 4.2: Performing an exclamative mood (Image downloaded from: https://cdn.langeek.co/photo/21135/thumb/exclamatory-mood/260?type=png )
Interrogative mood: [Finite^Subject/ Wh-Finite^Subject]
“Is he handsome?”
Subject-finite inversion can be observed in an interrogative Yes-No question. In this example, the auxiliary verb “is” is followed by the subject “he”.
“What is his name?”
A Wh-word will start the clause, followed by the Yes-No question structure for Wh- interrogative questions.
Interrogative mood clauses are usually performed when the speaker is seeking information.
Figure 4.3: Performing an interrogative mood (Image downloaded from: https://cdn.langeek.co/photo/21177/original/interrogative-mood?type=png )
Imperative mood: [ØSØF P]
“Close the door.”
“Make the coffee.”
Imperative clauses are realized by a base form of a verb (predicator), with no subject and finite following after. In the above example, the base form of the verbs “Close” and “Make” start the sentence and only the objects are left.
Imperative clauses are typically used to make requests, demands, or orders.
Figure 4.4: Performing an exclamative mood (Image downloaded from: https://cdn.langeek.co/photo/21133/thumb/conditional-mood/260?type=png )
Declarative mood: [Subject^Finite]
“The cat is sleeping.”
In this clause, “The cat”, the subject is followed by the finite “is”.
“I am sick of you.”
In this clause, “I”, the subject is followed by the finite “am”.
Before moving on to the speech act (which we will focus on in the next session), the declarative mood is typically understood as making statements or expressing opinions.
Figure 4.1: Performing a declarative mood (Image downloaded from: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRP6QjySUe2Qx05NdeCJ6Z5jwJMARk0HlogB756mBQAgH6JNca-ruG1G2yLCzjA2U_3mAU&usqp=CAU )
4.4.2 Functions (Speech Acts)
A speech act is an act that the speaker wants to perform through words. There are three types of forces under the speech act theory: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary. Locutionary force is the textual meaning of a clause, for example, “I promise to play with you.” The locutionary force is the statement given by the speaker above. Illocutionary force is the implication of the speaker when he saying the sentence. Here, he wants the listener to believe that he will play with him. The perlocutionary act is the effect on the listener, which is “He believes him.” in this situation. When we decide on the speech act of an utterance, we mainly focus on the illocutionary force, which is the implied meaning.
According to Lock (1996), he explains that there are four basic categories of speech acts: statements, questions, directives, and exclamations. Given the background of a mother who finds out that her son has broken her vase, let's see what types of speech acts the mother can carry out.
Statements: Providing new information.
"Jason, you broke my vase."
Questions: Requesting information.
"Did you break my vase?"
Directives: Commanding somebody to do something, giving suggestions, inviting somebody, etc.
" (You) Do not talk to me!"
Exclamations: Expressing emotions and attitudes.
"How dare you break my vase!"
4.4.3 Interaction between forms and functions
One form might perform one function or more; likewise, one function can perform one form or more. To fully understand the meaning of an utterance, the context and background of the utterance are highly necessary in most situations.
Direct Speech Acts
When a speaker’s implication in his utterance is clearly expressed and matches the utterance’s mood, it is a direct speech act.
Figure 4.5: Definition of direct and indirect speech acts (YouTube video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=H878pIpOsis )
Indirect Speech Acts
On the contrary, when a speaker communicates a meaning different from the textual meaning, he performs an indirect speech act. Another characteristic is having a clause structure that does not directly reflect the communicative function. It is important to emphasise that using indirect speech acts to communicate relies on the speaker and the listener’s mutually shared background information.
“Could you please do the dishes?”
For mood type, this is an interrogative clause. However, the speaker is performing a directive speech act, a request.
Figure 4.6: A mother scolding her son (image generated by PIXLR)
“You did it yourself?”
The mood type of this clause is declarative, with a subject^finite structure, but a question can be realised.
Figure 4.7: A birthday party surprise (image generated by PIXLR)
4.4.4 Accuracy (Grammaticality)
When mentioning accuracy in grammar, it includes the correctness of grammar, sentence structure, and syntax. It is the fundamental element when forming clauses and sentences with meanings. The lower the accuracy, the lower the effectiveness of communication. It is a common indicator for grading English ability, e.g. “Grammatical Range and Accuracy” is included in the rubrics for marking IELTS.
Figure 4.8: IELTS Advice on grammatical range and accuracy (Image downloaded from: https://ted-ielts.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Grammatical-Range-and-Accuracy.png )
Figure 4.4.6: African English speakers will not use is/are. (YouTube video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hw25n4Ehs4o )
4.4.3 Acceptability
Acceptability in grammar is highly related to the social and cultural background of the speaker and listener. Instead of having grammar-error-free sentences, it focuses more on whether the speaker delivers the message naturally according to his cultural background.
Take African English speakers as an example, they may include unique grammatical structures that are not “accurate” in standard English.
4.4.4 Interaction between accuracy and acceptability
Acceptability is affected by various factors, and accuracy is one of them. Generally speaking, grammatical clauses are accepted by people since they sound error-free. However, this is not always the case in reality.
For example, an employee prefers to speak more formally with his boss in the office. This is highly accepted by both the speaker (the employee) and the listener (the boss) because of the social norm that “an employee should show respect to his boss”.
On the contrary, we do not prefer to speak formally with our close friends. Imagine saying “I shall go to the store”, the acceptability of this clause will be relatively lower as “shall” is overly formal wording to use in a casual conversation.
Figure 4.4.7: Overly polite conversation when in danger (YouTube video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7Vp-_wXENM )
4.5 Grammatical Variation and Evolution
4.5 Grammatical Variation and Evolution
4.5.1 WHat is grammatical variation and evolution?
Grammatical variation refers to the differences in grammar that exist across different dialects, sociolects, or languages.
On the other hand, grammatical evolution refers to the changes and developments that occur in the grammar of a language over time.
In essence, while grammatical variation focuses on the differences in grammar across different contexts, grammatical evolution examines the historical processes and mechanisms through which grammar changes and develops over time. Both concepts are important in understanding the complexity and dynamism of human language systems.
4.5.2Why does grammatical variation and evolution occur?
4.5.2Why does grammatical variation and evolution occur?
Grammatical variation and evolution occur due to a variety of factors that influence the development and change of languages over time. Some of the main reasons for grammatical variation and evolution include:
Historical Factors: Languages evolve over time through historical processes such as language contact, migration, and cultural exchange. These interactions can lead to the adoption of new grammatical structures or the modification of existing ones.
Social Factors: Social factors, such as geographical location, social class, ethnicity, and education level, can also impact grammatical variation and evolution. Different social groups may develop distinct linguistic features that contribute to variation in grammar.
Language Contact: Contact between languages can result in grammatical variation and evolution as languages influence each other through processes like borrowing, calquing, and pidginization. This can lead to the integration of new grammatical features into a language.
Standardization and Prestige: The standardization of a language can influence grammatical evolution by establishing norms and conventions for grammar and usage. Prestige varieties of a language may influence the adoption or rejection of certain grammatical structures.
Cognitive Processes: Cognitive factors play a role in how languages evolve and change over time. Speakers' cognitive abilities and language processing mechanisms can influence the adoption of new grammatical structures or the regularization of irregular forms.
Technological Advances: Technological advancements and changes in society can also contribute to grammatical variation and evolution. New forms of communication, such as digital media and the internet, can influence language use and the development of new grammatical conventions.
Overall, grammatical variation and evolution are complex phenomena that result from a combination of historical, social, cognitive, and technological factors. By studying these factors, linguists can gain insights into how languages change and adapt over time, reflecting the dynamic nature of human language systems.
4.5.3 How to view grammatical variation and evolution?
4.5.3 How to view grammatical variation and evolution?
Study historical texts: By examining texts from different time periods, you can observe how grammar has evolved over time. Look for changes in syntax, word usage, and punctuation.
Analyze regional dialects: Different regions often have their own unique grammar rules and vocabulary. By studying regional variations, you can gain insights into how language evolves in different geographical areas.
Read linguistic research: Linguists study grammatical variation and evolution, so reading academic papers and books on the subject can provide you with a deeper understanding of the topic.
Use language corpora: Language corpora are large collections of texts that can be analyzed to track changes in grammar over time. You can access corpora online or through linguistic databases.
Participate in language forums and discussions: Engaging with other language enthusiasts can help you learn about different grammatical variations and how they are used in everyday communication.
4.6 Conclusion
4.6 Conclusion
Functional grammar has provided a framework for understanding the language operation. This focus on the word meaning and word usage. It is important that human need functional grammar to create a complete meaning of a sentence, so that people can communicate with understanding. Functional grammar has been an important role in discussion and analysis in communication.
References
References
Halliday, M.A.K., & Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2014). Halliday's Introduction to Functional Grammar (4th ed.). Routledge.
Kay, M. (1979). Functional grammar. Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society. https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/view/3262
Lock, G. (1996). Ch. 9: Clause types and speech acts. In Functional English grammar (pp. 174-191). Cambridge University Press.
Nichols, J. (1984). Functional theories of grammar. Annual review of Anthropology (pp. 97-117). https://www.jstor.org/stable/2155663
Thompson, G. (2013). Introducing Functional Grammar (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Exercises
Exercises
After reading the basic ideas of funtional grammar, why don't we try some exercises together!
Question 1
What is the theme in this sentence ?
Car is running out of battery
a) battery
b) running out
c) Car
d) out of battery
ANS: C
Question 2
2. What is the difference between structural grammar and functional grammar ?
a) Systematic framework
b) Mood
c) Communication
d) Structure
ANS: A
Question 3
What is the usage of interpersonal meaning in a clause?
a) Using language to interact with other people
b) A way speakers construct their messages that fit into the scenario and event that they are in
c) To describes the external world and internal experiences
d) All the above
ANS: A
Question 4
Esperanza is listening to the Wisdom Saga from Epic the Musical.
What type of process is the word “listening” ?
a) Mental Process
b) Material Process
c) Relational Process
d) Behavioral Process
ANS: B
Question 5
Given the context and utterance, fill in the blanks below:
During an interview, you answered something stupid. The interviewer replied, "This is your answer?".
The utterance "This is your answer?" is a speech act with a form and functions as a .
a) indirect; declarative; exclamation
b) indirect; interrogative; statement
c) direct; declarative; exclamation
d) direct; interrogative; statement
ANS: A
Question 6
Match the following description with the correct idea(s).
Uncommon grammatical structures might be seen due to the cultural background of the speaker and the listener. Sometimes, sentences might be incorrect grammatically.
a) Accuracy
b) Acceptability
c) None of the above
d) All the above
ANS: B
Question 7
Which of the following factors do not lead to grammatical variation and evolution？
A. Historical Factors
B. Social Factors
C. Language Contact factors
D. political factors
ANS:D
Question 8
Is the following statement correct or not?
Grammatical variation is an evolutionary search algorithm, similar to genetic programming. It is typically used to generate programs with syntax defined through grammar.
A. Correct
B. Incorrect
ANS:B
Question 9
Which of the following is a proper example of asking a supervisor?
A) Could you please be there on time?
B) May I know when is the time for the meeting?
C) Could you remind me when there is a meeting?
D) Have you spare your time for the meeting?
ANS: B
Question 10
Which of the following sentences best fit the blank?
‘The newest update about “Final Destination 6”, ______. We are glad to see him back! Let’s hope the movie will reveal his mysterious background.’
A) reliable online news announced that the coroner Tony Todd will be back in the “Final Destination 6”
B) the coroner Tony Todd was announced to be back
C) the “Final Destination 6” was announced to include The coroner Tony Todd
D) return of the coroner Tony Todd was announced by reliable online news
ANS: B
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