Chapter 05 Speech and Writing

Phonetics can be defined as the science which studies the characteristics of human speech and provides methods fortheir description, classification, and transcription (Reference CrystalCrystal, 2003, p. 349).Different from phonology,phonetics is expressed as how speech sounds are made, concentrating on the study of sound production process.This module will represent ways to make proper sounds, terminology on sound making and phonetics application in teaching.

1.1.2 Major speech Organs

The human vocal organ, primarily the larynx, plays a crucial role in vocalization by producing sound through the vibration of the vocal cords. Sound is generated when air expelled from the lungs passes through the vocal cords, causing them to vibrate.

Organs for sound producing mainly includes lips, nose, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, palate, vocal cords, pharynx, vocal tract. Based on physical and biological principles, the original sound is produced by vocal cord vibration, then through a series of processes, the whole word is pronounced finally.

Example:

If we want to produce /p/

we should get our two lips close together and then push them open with a puff of air

1.1.3 Progress of making vowels

1.1.3.1 Position of The Tongue

· height: high-close, mid-mid, low-open

· frontness/backness

1.1.3.2 Shapes of Lips

rounded

unrounded

high

mid

low

1.1.4 Articulation

1.1.4.1 Place of Articulation

·bilabial: use both lips articulate consonant.

·Labiodental: use lower lip and the upper teeth to articulate consonant.

·Dental: use upper teeth and lower teeth to articulate consonant.

·Palato-alveolar: weakly palatalized with a tongue.

·Alveolar: use the tip of the tongue near the gum ridge to articulate consonant

·Palatal: a semivowel produced with the tongue near the palate.

·Velar: a consonant produced with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft tpalate.

·Glottal: consonants produced by the glottis. (glottis: glottal stop).

Moreover, whether the sound voiced or voiceless is determined on the vocal cords. If vocal cords closed, the sound will be voiced, but if vocal cords open, then the sound will be voiceless.

1.1.4.2 Manner of Articulation

·Plosive/stop: air completely blocked, then released.

·Fricative: air escapes through a narrow passage, producing a hissing noise.

·Affricate: plosive together with fricative.

·Nasal: air exits through the nose.

·Lateral: air exits through the 2 sides of the tongue.

·Approximant: very little obstruction to airflow.

1.2 Phonology

1.2.1 overview

Phonology refers to the study of the sound systems of languages, and of the general properties displayed by these systems, emphasizing on how speech sounds of a language pattern together according to regular rules Basic pronunciation can be divided into vowels and consonants.

1.2.2 introduction

1.2.2.1 Alphabetic Representations of Vowels and Consonants

·Vowels letters in English: a, e, i, o, u

·Semi vowels: w, y Each of the vowel letters represents 2 vowel sounds: short and long sounds.

·Then some special vowels: R-controlled vowels may provide easy learning rules.

·When ‘r’ comes behind a vowel, it controls the vowel and makes a new sound.

For example, ’r’ in the word ‘order’ changes the original sound of ‘o’ and ‘e’.

·monophthongs and Diphthongs

1.2.2.2 Phonics Knowledge

·sound groups

Digraph: two letters represent one sound example: vowels digraph-ea, oa consonant digraph-gh, wh

Cluster/Blend: two letters represent different sounds. example: blend-bl

1.2.2.3 Syllable and Stress

·Every word if made up of syllables, a word can have one, two, three, or more syllables.

To research in sounds of words, we can use syllable structure. While in a string, the initial consonants of a syllable before the vowel called “Onset”; the rest of the syllable called “rime”. The individual vowel sound called “nucleus”; in rime, the part after nucleus called “coda”.

·Regarding word stress, when a word has more than one syllable, there would be stress on at least one syllable. In terms of distinguish the place of stress, we can apply the characteristics of the stressed syllables, firstly, they are relatively louder, longer and with a higher pitch. secondly, they are described as prominent syllables.

If there are no stress on word level, then the word is “monosyllabic”; and if the word have more than one syllable, it will both have stressed and unstressed word. But “schwa” never stressed.

1.2.3 Different Types of accents

1.2.3.1 Aspects in Differences

The types of phonetic can be majorly divided into British accent and American accent. Additionally, there are more branches stretch from the “tree” of phonetic types. All the partial main pronunciations they both have are the same, but also each type has its own characteristics, including different accent and tone.

For the specific differences between various accent, we can identify differences in below angles: features include variations in stress, pitch, and length, which are known as suprasegmental features .For example the British accent and American accent. American accent tends to present the 'r' sound following vowels, unlike British accent, where it is often dropped. In terms of stress, British and American accents both strongly exhibit stress patterns; regarding vowels length, British and American accents differ in the pronunciation of certain vowels and diphthongs.

1.2.3.2 Influenced Factors

On the whole angle to state, these differences was mainly contributed by social and geographic factors. Geographically speaking, isolation of European native in American Continent and Aisa Continent derive different pronunciation; Historically speaking, the original dialects in American and Aisa are adulterated in the British accent, so British accent receive new linguistic features, resulting in distinction in different areas after a series of historical process.

Features of spoken language

2.1 Special features

2.1.1 Redundancy features

Redundancy features is the things we don’t really need but it usually happen in speech.It makes some pauses to help speakers to consider what should say next and gains enough time to ensure that audience can absorbed what the speaker had said.

It comes in the following forms:

A. Repetation

B. Filler

Examples:

1. Wow! She's really making her way through the group, huh? - Eh, who am I to talk? - Yeah.(lines of Friends)

2. Bryce? Your name is Bryce Lee? Wait, wait, um, um, um Don't hire a new waitress, okay?(lines of Broken girls)

2.1.2 Incomplete sentences

It is usual features in speech that people tend to leave some things out,they may not speak complete sentence.

Examples:

A.What can you see?

Potatoes,tomatoes.

It would be unnatural if the conversation went like this:

B.What you can see?

I can see potstoes and tomatoes.

2.1.3 Contractions

It is common in spoken language,it can make the speech more fluency and faster the pace of it.

Examples:

A.I can’t believe it!

Instead of-“I can not believe it!”

B.I won’t do it

Instead of-I will not do it.

2.1.4Using intonation and body language

In spoken language people can see each other face to face and can also hearing their voice.So in the speech,speakers often use body language unconsionsely or deliberately,such as shrug to express their confusion,nodding their head to express aggrement,clap their hands to express excitement and so on.

As for intonation,for example,if ask “What do you mean?”in a soomth intonation,it may means that you can not understand what the speaker talking about,the speaker may have to repeat it or explain it.But,if you ask him in a annoyed intonation,it may means the speaker say something that is rude and impolite for you that made you feel angry.

It is more vivid to add body language and intonation in your speech,it will let people better understand your speech.

2.1.5 Slang

Slangs is informal words and expressions that are identified as atypical.

Example:

1.I dig you.

2. A piece of cake.

3.A bad egg.

4.Cost an arm and a leg.

5.Get to the bottom of something.

2.2 Other characteristics of spoken language

2.2.1 Under-lexicalized

Speech language tends to use a little range of lexis and less preprecision

2.2.2 Untidy

As Spoken language has little advanced planning,so people just comes to speak what appearing in s/he mind at that time.In this case,the speech will be illogical and chaotic.For example,it often use modal partical,such as “er,em..etc”.Also,the speaker may repeat some words to gain some time to let them organize what to say next.What’s more,some of the conservation is inconsistent,the question may don’t match the answer,because of the listerners are not paying attention to the speakers or the speaker doesn’t express it clearly or some objective reasons.

Example:

A:What’s your full name sir?

B:Iphone fifteen pro max.

(This joke may be due to the objective factors of different accent.)

2.2.3 additive

In speech,speaker often adding some new imformations to what has already been said.

Example:

At the beginning,you should first take out the bananas and milk.Then put it on the table and then pourthe milk out and cut the banana into small pieces and put all of them into the juicer.Then press the start button.Then add a little sugar in it and wait for 10 minutes.Then the shake is done.

2.2.4 Interactive

When people speak,they often repeat each other’s words to indicate that they carefully pay attention to what the people said before.Through this interactive people can have enough time to absorb what the speaker said before and make the interlocutors more connective.For example,the following conversation is about asking the way:

A:Excuse me,how can I get to the Center Park?

B:Get to the Center Park?

A:Yes

B:Ok,first go along this street.

A: Go along this street.

B: And then turn right at the first block,the Center Park is on your right.

B: Turn right at the first block.Ok,I got it.Thank you very much.

2.2.5 Formulaic

Language is arbitrary,so when people speaking,some sentence they will focus on some certain patterns.

Examples:

1. Could you please..?

Of course/Certainly/Sure/I’m sorry../I’m afraid not..

2. What do you think?

I think/In my opinion/From my point of view/In my position/In my perspective..

3. Nice to meet you.

Nice to meet you,too.

4. How are you going?

Good/Notbad/Excellent/awful/terrible

5. Good morning

Good morning

2.2.6 Vague

In the speech,people often use some pronoun,like “this one,that one..” to express the things they saw.But that is abstract and blurry.When in writing people will not know what is this refer to.

Example:

1.He is a kind of like that.

2.There he is.

3. What’s this?

4.That one is my favorite.

2.3 Formal speech

A formal speech is that you speak to the public in a very solemn and serious occasions.It is quite different from the usual conversation.Here are some of differences in formal speech:

1. Nominalization: to make the speech more professional.

2. You should use some conjunctions to make the speech conherence and logical.

3. Not to use constractions

4. Do not always use the simple words,try to use advanced vocabulary

5. Don’t colloquial your speech,try to use formal words

conclusion

Speaking languge has a number of unique features,it is quite different than writing,we need to follow their features.Don’t confuse them.

Genres
3.1 writing genres

3.1.1.Introduction

Genre can be understood as a system of marking works that helps publishers, booksellers, and readers determine what to expect from a particular text. It encompasses various forms of writing, each with different conventions and purposes. Genres are not static; they evolve over time, reflecting changes in social circumstances and reader expectations

3.1.2.Importance

Writing genres are important frameworks that help classify different types of writing based on stylistic and thematic characteristics. This classification helps writers and readers navigate the vast field of literature and written communication.

Reference:Rethinking Genre: Genre as a tool for writers throughout the writing process by Raelke Grimmer

3.1.3.Main Categories of Writing Genres:

3.1.3.1.Expository writing

1>Definition:

Expository writing is defined as any writing that seeks explanation or guidance. Explanatory writing prioritizes clarity and objectivity, unlike persuasive or narrative writing, which may be intended to persuade or entertain. The primary purpose is to educate readers on a specific topic while providing comprehensive details supported by evidence

reference:Expository Writing: Definition and Examples by Hannah Yang

2>Common Types of Explanatory Writing

Expository writing can take many forms, including:

Descriptive essays: These essays focus on describing the characteristics of the topic in detail.

Process documents: These documents explain how to do something or how something works.

Compare and Contrast Essays: These essays explore the similarities and differences between two or more topics

reference:Expository Writing: Definition and Examples by Hannah Yang

3>Main features:

Effective expository writing should have several key characteristics:

Clarity: The language used must be simple and easy to understand.

Objectivity: The author should maintain a fair tone and focus only on the facts.

Evidence-based: Claims made must be supported by reliable sources and factual data

3.3.3.2. Descriptive writing

1>Definition:

Descriptive writing is a literary technique that seeks to create a vivid picture in the reader's mind through a detailed description of a person, place, object, or event. This form of writing engages the senses and evokes emotion, allowing readers to experience the subject matter more fully.

The Purpose of Descriptive Writing

The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a person, place or thing in such a way that a picture is formed in the reader's mind.

The purpose of this type of writing is not to approve something or to support some opinions,it is like a picture consist of descriptive characters,to leave you a unforgettable impression.

Key Elements of Descriptive Writing

1) Sensory details

Explanations are enriched by incorporating sensory details such as sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.

2) Specific language

The use of figurative language, such as metaphors and metaphors, adds depth and creativity to explanations. For example, comparing a sunset to a 'canvas splattered with orange and pink' will create a more vivid image than simply saying it's colorful.

3) Choose the correct words

Choosing specific adjectives and strong verbs can increase clarity and impact. Avoiding clichés and choosing original explanations can make your writing more interesting. For example, instead of saying "The dog is fast," you can convey speed more vividly by saying "The dog sprints like a bullet."

4) Configuration

Effective descriptive writing usually follows a clear structure. This helps guide the reader smoothly through the description.

Reference:How to Write a Descriptive Essay | Example & Tips

Published on July 30, 2020 by Jack Caulfield. Revised on August 14, 2023.

What is a Descriptive Essay? How to Write It (with Examples) by Dr.Renu Bish

3.3.3.3.Narrative Writing

1>Definition:

Narrative writing is a powerful form of storytelling that spans a variety of genres and styles, allowing writers to convey experiences, emotions, and events in compelling ways.

2>Types of Narrative Writing

Narrative writing can take many forms:

Personal Narrative: These stories are drawn from the author's own life experiences and often reflect important events or lessons learned.

Fictional Narratives: These involve entirely fictional characters and plots, allowing for creativity and imagination.

Descriptive narratives: While focusing on storytelling, these narratives emphasize vivid descriptions to evoke emotion and create images in the reader's mind

3>Key Elements of Narrative Writing

Successful narrative writing includes several basic components:

Plot: The sequence of events that moves the story forward. Well-structured plots usually follow a traditional arc, with rising action, climax, and resolution.

Characters: These are the individuals who inhabit the story. Effective character development reveals their motivations, personalities, and growth throughout the narrative.

Setting: The time and place in which the story unfolds. A well-defined setting enhances the reader's immersion in the narrative.

Theme: The basic message or lesson conveyed by the narrative. This can be explicit or subtly woven into the story.

Point of View: The point of view from which a story is told, usually in the first or third person

Reference:WHAT IS A NARRATIVE ESSAY AND THE SIX STEPS TO WRITING ONE by HOMEWORK HELP GLOBAL

Narrative Writing by DR. KAREN PALMER

3.3.3.4.Persuasive writing:

Definition:

Persuasive writing is a critical skill designed to persuade readers to believe a particular point of view or take specific action. By employing logical reasoning, emotional appeal, and compelling arguments, persuasive writers strive to influence their audience's beliefs and behaviors.

2>Types of persuasive writing:

Persuasive writing manifests itself in a variety of forms, including:

Essay: Typically assigned in an academic setting, these essays require students to argue a specific issue.

Speeches: Historical speeches such as Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" exemplify powerful persuasive writing designed to inspire action and change1.

Editorial: Opinion articles in newspapers allow writers to express their views on current events or social issues and are intended to sway public opinion

Reference:40 Real-World Persuasive Writing Examples (Essays, Speeches, Ads, and More) by Jill Staake, B.S., Secondary ELA Education

Key Features of Persuasive Writing:

1)Clear Positioning: Authors must clearly state their perspective on the topic at hand.

2)Logical Structure: A well-organized persuasive piece includes an introduction, body paragraphs that present supporting arguments, and a conclusion that reinforces your main points. Each paragraph should focus on one argument or piece of evidence.

3) Use of Evidence: Effective persuasive writing relies on credible evidence to support claims. This can include statistics, expert opinions, examples, and anecdotes that support the author's argument.

4) Emotional appeal: While logic is crucial, appealing to the reader's emotions (pathos) can significantly enhance persuasion.

5) Credibility: Establishing authority (ethos) is crucial in persuasive writing. Writers should demonstrate knowledge of the topic and present themselves as a trustworthy source

Reference:Persuasive Essay Guide: How to Write a Persuasive Essay

by MasterClass

Writing a Persuasive Essay by Adam Polak ’98 and Jen Collins ’96

3.3.3.5.Journals and Letter Writing:

1>Definition:

Journals and letter writing are two great tools that play a important role in self-expression,reflection,communication field.

2>The importance of Journals

Mental health benefits: journals reduce anxiety and stress levels,and emotions will be processed if people write about their feelings.

Self-discovery: self-awareness would be also promoted,cause people record thoughts and experiences.What’s more,you can also gain sight into various parts.

Creative outlet: Journals can also serve as creative spaces.

Reference:20 Journaling Benefits: Why You Should Keep A Journal by Kristen Webb Wright

Mental Health Benefits of Journaling by WebMD Editorial Contributors

3>The art of letter writing:

Letter writing is another form of communicating method which develops for several centuries.It is old and pretty.When you have a look on this.You will feel the charm of history and the power of curing people’s minds

Personal connection: Letters provide a personal connection which have effects on digital communication.A handwritten letter conveys sincere feelings when it is received by people away from home.

3.1.4.conculsion:

In my opinions,knowing writing genres and make full use of them can push us to a higher stage and help us open the door of literature.last but not least,we also can earn mental strength if we get a closer touch with them.

4.1 The comparison of Speech and Writing

4.1.1 Introduction

The phenomenon of human interaction is complicated and multidimensional, predominantly manifested through two principal media: speech and writing. Though they obtain the fundamental functions of expressing ideas, feelings and information, they are characterized by distinct attributes, modes of utilization and impact on human communication.

4.1.2 Abiogenesis and Planning

A notable distinction between spoken and written language is the degree of spontaneity present. Speech is generally characterized by its immediate and spontaneous nature. Conversations occur in real-time, often without significant prior thought. This immediacy facilitates a lively and fluid exchange of ideas, allowing speakers to quickly respond to their conversation partners. The inherent spontaneity of speech also makes it more susceptible to mistakes, interruptions, and self-corrections—elements that listeners typically accept within the conversational context.

In contrast, writing demands a higher level of planning and consideration. Writers benefit from having time to structure their thoughts, select words with care, and revise their drafts before sharing them with an audience. This approach usually leads to a more refined and coherent presentation of ideas. However, this intentional aspect of writing can render it less dynamic and adaptable than spoken communication.

4.1.3 Formality and Structure

Additionally, speech and writing vary significantly regarding formality and structural conventions. Spoken language tends to be more casual and informal; it frequently incorporates contractions, slang terms, or idiomatic phrases that may not fit well in written formats. The grammatical framework in spoken discourse is typically looser; sentences might begin with conjunctions or conclude with prepositions quite regularly. Moreover, spoken communication heavily relies on prosody—such as intonation patterns, emphasis, and rhythm—to express meaning effectively.

Conversely, writing is usually more formalized while adhering closely to established grammatical standards. Written works are expected to maintain clarity, brevity, and avoidance of colloquial expressions—particularly in academic or professional settings. Since written text lacks vocal indicators like tone or pitch variations found in speech, there’s a greater need for careful punctuation usage along with syntax management to ensure clarity while conveying subtle meanings.

4.1.4 Permanence and Ephemerality

A significant distinction between writing and speech is the enduring nature of written communication compared to the fleeting quality of spoken words. When we speak, our words are temporary; they only exist while being heard. Once articulated, they cannot be easily recalled or revisited unless recorded. This ephemeral characteristic makes verbal communication ideal for spontaneous, casual, and interactive exchanges.

In contrast, writing establishes a lasting record of information. Written documents can be archived, referenced, and reviewed indefinitely, making them essential for documentation purposes, historical archives, and legal matters. The durability of writing also facilitates more deliberate and contemplative expression since authors have the opportunity to refine their thoughts before sharing them.

4.1.5 Change and Development

Both forms of language—speech and writing—undergo evolution but do so at varying rates through distinct processes. Spoken language is highly flexible and changes quickly in response to social dynamics, cultural shifts, technological advancements, as well as interactions with other languages. New terms can rapidly become part of everyday conversation; pronunciation patterns may alter within just one generation.

On the other hand, written language evolves at a slower pace and tends to maintain traditional forms that might no longer be prevalent in spoken discourse. This tendency towards conservatism arises partly from the formal characteristics associated with written communication along with established spelling conventions and grammatical rules. Nevertheless, over time writing does adapt by integrating new vocabulary that mirrors societal transformations as well as technological progressions.

4.1.5 Change and Development

4.1.6 Audience and Interaction

The characteristics of the audience and the degree of interaction vary significantly between spoken language and written text. Speech is fundamentally social and interactive, typically involving real-time exchanges between speakers and listeners that allow for instant feedback and adjustments. This level of interactivity creates a connection and engagement that writing often struggles to replicate.

In contrast, writing tends to be a more solitary endeavor for both authors and readers. The relationship between writer and audience is indirect, with responses occurring after some delay. While readers can interpret written works, this feedback mechanism lacks the immediacy found in verbal communication. Nevertheless, writing has the advantage of reaching a wider array of audiences since texts can be distributed broadly across different times and locations.

4.1.7 Cognitive Processes

The cognitive processes involved in both reading and writing are similar, as they both require comprehension and the ability to make sense of language. Research indicates that the brain processes spoken and written language in analogous ways, emphasizing the idea that understanding and meaning are at the core of both activities

Yet the cognitive mechanisms at play in speech versus writing differ markedly. Speaking is an innate skill most individuals develop early on without formal training; it requires real-time processing reliant on memory as well as immediate cognitive resources. The brain synchronizes various functions—such as syntax, semantics, and phonology—in order to produce coherent speech spontaneously.

Conversely, writing is a skill acquired through education that necessitates practice. It involves more intentional cognitive processes where writers must plan their ideas carefully while organizing them into structured formats using tools like outlines or drafts. Writing engages distinct areas of the brain associated with fine motor skills alongside visual processing.

4.1.8 Influence and Authority

The perceived influence and authority linked to speech compared to writing can change based on context. In numerous cultures, written documents are often seen as more credible than spoken words due to their permanence, formality, and thoughtful nature. Examples include legal contracts or academic articles which carry significant weight.

On the other hand, oral communication may hold greater sway in situations demanding persuasion or emotional resonance—like public speaking or storytelling—which effectively engage audiences through immediacy that written forms might not achieve as powerfully.

4.1.9 Developmental Differences

The relationship between speaking and writing evolves over time. Younger children often write in ways that closely resemble their spoken language, but as they develop, they learn to differentiate more clearly between the two. This involves moving from context-dependent utterances to more autonomous and structured written forms

In a research conducted by Barry M. Kroll and Jacques D. Lempers, they investigated that children in grades three and four conveyed, on average, a greater volume of total information through spoken communication compared to written communication. In contrast, sixth-grade students demonstrated a similar average amount of total information conveyed in both modalities (Kroll & Lempers, 1981) .

Conclusively, it can be summarised that younger children exhibited superior communication skills overall. By grade six, however, the proficiency of children in both spoken and written explanations was nearly identical, indicating that the content of their spoken and written directions was largely equivalent (Kroll & Lempers, 1981).

4.1.10 Feedback Mechanism

Distinct characteristics are exhibited in terms of the feedback mechanisms associated with writing and speaking, to which they can be analysed through the nature of tasks involved.

In the field of speaking, feedback is primarily auditory and occurs in real-time. The coordination of the vocal cords, tongue, lips, and breath control is essential to the act of articulation, allowing individuals to adjust their speech based on immediate auditory feedback. This suggests that the immediacy of auditory feedback can facilitate more dynamic adjustments during speech ( Rodríguez-Aranda, 2003 ) .

In contrast, writing relies on visual feedback, which inherently results in a slower feedback rate. Unlike speaking, the feedback in writing is acquired after the written words have been read, signifying a different cognitive approach. Writing entails fine motor control and the spatial coordination of finger and wrist movements. Thus, the delayed nature of feedback in writing can hinder the ability to make real-time adjustments.

In summary, while both speaking and writing encompass cognitive and motor components, their feedback mechanisms differ significantly in terms of timing and sensory modalities. Speaking benefits from immediate auditory feedback, whereas writing relies on delayed visual and tactile feedback.

4.1.11 Redundacy features

In the context of linguistic redundancy, there are notable differences between writing and speaking, primarily influenced by the nature of each medium and the redundancy features involved.

4.1.11.1 Contextual redundancy

This type of redundancy can vary significantly between writing and speaking. In writing, redundancy may serve to clarify or emphasize a point through synonymous repetition or isolating repetition to provide clarity. In contrast, spoken language often utilizes contextual redundancy for immediate comprehension, especially in informal contexts, where speakers may repeat phrases or words for emphasis or to ensure understanding amidst potential noise or distraction ( Wit & Gillette, 1999 ) .

The following are a few examples of contextual redundancy in terms of written and spoken contexts

Written contexts

Identical or Synonymous Repetition:
- “I am completely and entirely crazy about her.”
- The use of both "completely" and "entirely" reinforces the speaker's strong feelings.
Isolating, Salient Repetition:
- “I live in Chicago, Illinois.”
- "Illinois" specifies which Chicago is being referred to, isolating the location.

Spoken contexts

Ensure understanding for emphasis:
- “I can't give you money – no. ”
- This ensures understanding amidst potential noise or distraction.

Reference

Baron, N. S. (2000). Alphabet to email: How written English evolved and where it's heading. Routledge.

Chafe, W. (1982). Integration and involvement in speaking, writing, and oral literature. In D. Tannen (Ed.), Spoken and written language: Exploring orality and literacy (pp. 35-53). Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Crystal, D. (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Crystal, D. (2003). A dictionary of linguistics & phonetics (5th ed.). Blackwell.Google Scholar

Crystal, D. (2006). The fight for English: How language pundits ate, shot, and left. Oxford University Press.

Gee, J. P. (2012). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Harris, R. (1986). The origin of writing. Open Court Publishing.

Kroll, B. M. (1981). Developmental relationships between speaking and writing. Exploring speaking-writing relationships: Connections and contrasts, 32-54.

Ong, W. J. (1982). Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word. Methuen.

Rodríguez-Aranda, C. (2003). Reduced writing and reading speed and age-related changes in verbal fluency tasks. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(2), 203-215.

Tannen, D. (1982). Oral and literate strategies in spoken and written narratives. Language, 58(1), 1-21.

Wit, E. C., & Gillette, M. (1999). What is linguistic redundancy. University of Chicago.

Comprehension Questions

Please answer the following multiple choiceW

Be spoken features in the following sentence"em,ah I know he em he win the game"

   A)Slang   B)Under-lexicalized   C)Redundancy features   D)intonation and body language
    Answer:D
2. Which of the examples represents Formulaic in the following conversation?    A)a.Good morning b.Good morning    B)a.How can I get good grade? b.You should study hard    C)a.How can I get to the supermarket? b.You should go along the street and then turn right at the first block    D)a.Could you please..? b.Certainly/sorry,I can't.
    Answer:AD
3. Which of the following are the characteristics of the speech?   A) Permanent   B) Colloquial   C) Ephemeral   D) Authoritative    Answer: BC
4.Which of the following is aveolar in articulation?   A)/u/   B)/i:/   C)/t/   D)/n/
   Answer:C
5.Which of the following sound group is vowels digraph?   A)ea   B)bl   C)gh   D)wh
   answer:A
6.Which of the following options support the point by comparing with others' opinions: A.expository writing B.descriptive writing C.narrative writing D.persuative writing
answer:A
7.The following options which become less common in the daily lifeA.descriptive writingB.narrative writingC.jounals and letters writingD.expository writing
answer:C
8. Which of the following options are characteristic of writing development?
A). Slow    B). Maladaptive    C). Conservative
answer: AC

9. Which of the following option(s) about the feedback mechanism of speaking is true?A. Requires the coordination of tongue, lips, breath control and eyesB. It has a faster feedback rate than writingC. It relies on visual feedbackD. It relies on tactile feedback
answer: B
10. Which of the following is an example of identical or synonymous repetition?A. I'm able to ace the test - yesB. I live in Guangdong, ChinaC. This is a beautiful place, isn't it?D. I am immensely and extremely sorry, ma'am

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