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Group members:
Student A: HO NGO NAM (11557541)
Student B: NIE XI EN (11537383)
Student C: LIU JIA LIN (11563617)
Student D: LIANG JING YI (11537527)
Student E: LIAO ZHE HE (11537395)
Student F: LI CUN CHUAN (11537369)
Introduction
Introduction
Pragmatic, not only a crucial part of linguistics in English Studies, but also deeply linked with our daily life, however, when we discuss about pragmatic in details, people seldom show a certain level of knowledge of it, hence, we believe it is essential to explain and discuss the details of “pragmatic” for learners to obtain the basic knowledge of it and then further enhance their knowledge surrounding pragmatic.
6.1 What is Pragmatic
6.2 Word's Invisible Meaning
6.3 Grice's Coorperative Principle
6.4 Politeness
6.5 Cross-Cultural pragmatics
6.6 Pragmatic and technology
6.7 References
6.8 MC Questions
6.1 What is Pragmatic
6.1 What is Pragmatic
Figure 6.1 The Greek word "pragmatikos" in a dictionary (image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/hGZ7FHKB1F6ZAwSf7 )
6.1.1 Origin of Pragmatic
6.1.1 Origin of Pragmatic
The linguistic term of “Pragmatic” originates from the Greek word “ pragmatikos”, it means “fit for action” or “practical”. It focuses on the practical part of language usage, which refers to people 's interpretation of meaning and communication beyond the surface meaning and definitions of word and sentences.
In the ancient time, there were records where scholars from Greece, Rome and Pre-Qin China had attempted in studies related to the relationship between pragmatic and language usage. For example, Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, examined questions about pragmatic in the field of philosophy, logic and rhetoric.
Back in ancient China, Pre-Qin scholars discovered the ideas of Pragmatic in terms of schools of thought, such as “Nameless Thoughts” in Taoism and “Rectification of Names” in Confucianism (Mouton, 2023).
Although past scholars had done some studies on it, Pragmatic hadn’t gained much attention until the 20th century with the study from philosophers such as J.L Austin and H.P. Grice. Austin’s theory of speech pointed out in what ways can utterances perform actions like ordering food or promising others, on the other hand, Grice’s cooperative principle showed the relationship between the meaning that speakers imply and listeners infer.
Nowadays, the society believed that the origin of pragmatic in terms of linguistics could be traced back into the three dimensions of semiosis established in Morris’s essay “Foundations of the theory of signs” in 1938, which includes syntactic, semantics and pragmatics (Mouton, 2023).
6.1.2 Definition and brief explanation of features in pragmatic
6.1.2 Definition and brief explanation of features in pragmatic
In modern linguistics, pragmatic refers to the study of in what extent do context affect the interpretation of meaning in daily communication, in practice, scholars mainly examine in what way do people use language during a real life situation such as chatting with others, while also studying to how receivers in a communication make their own interpretation on the utterances based on the context at the moment, which includes cultural, social and situational factors.
When we mention the study of pragmatic in the field of linguistics, there are some common features, including Implicature, Speech Arts, Deixis, Politeness and Indirectness and Conversational Maxim.
All these features concluded from past scholars' researches boost people’s further understanding of the difference between the daily usage of language and the usage of language on paper.
6.1.3 Pragmatic being an essential part in our modern society
6.1.3 Pragmatic being an essential part in our modern society
People seldom acknowledge the term pragmatic as they aren’t acquired to study it deeply nor are they able to gain access to related information of pragmatic, yet, undoubtedly pragmatic acts as an important part in our daily life.
To start with, Pragmatic helps with people’s acknowledgement of hidden thoughts from others' words . In written form, each word has their own and unique meanings, making it easy to understand, however, when the usage of language is moved into real life, a word could mean different things based on their tone, environment and social cues, which led to possible confusion between people. Pragmatic boosts the understanding of the intended meaning of people behind their word in real life, ultimately creating more effective communications between individuals during different real life situations.
Secondly, during the learning process of a certain language, except for the requirement to familiarise themselves with that language in written form, real life usage of that target language is also another focus of learners. With Pragmatic, not only learners could boost their acknowledgement in terms of contextual communications regarding the target language, pragmatic competence could also enhance their grammatical and functional language skill since they would react fluently, coherently and accurately. (Nivis, 2013)
In summary, Pragmatic plays an important role in people’s daily life. Not only can it foster the understanding and communication between individuals in our society, it also boosts the learning progress of one’s target language since it enhances their mastery of it.
6.1.4 Register and Appropriacy
6.1.4 Register and Appropriacy
In terms of pragmatic, in different times, with different audiences and circumstances, people would change their tone and words in their communication, it is called the “formality” or “ style” in language usage. There are 5 types of register in pragmatic, including:
Frozen: this register is often known as the “static register” since it refers to historical language of communication in records that was intended to remain unchanged, such as the United States Constitution and the Bible (Richard, 2024).
Figure 6.2 Context of Bible
(image downloaded from https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTJzn87-vGY73IRjg2UvvbikiECsTaHUSZ74w&s )
2. Formal: The wording is less fixed but it is still mannered. The formal registers are usually used in some professional situations, such as meetings or presentations in companies, a talk held in Universities.
Figure 6.3 People having a company meeting
3. Consultative: Consultative registers are often neutral or respectful since it is mostly used in communication between listener and advisers, yet, it might turn into a more casual register if the relationship between the speaker and receiver are more friendly or longer, such as between students and teachers during some counselling and TV shows.
Figure 6.4 Plumber talking to his customer
(image download from https://images.app.goo.gl/oj9fkyEhXirZu8tP7 )
4.Casual: This is the register where people use in their usual daily life, such as talking with friends at some party or just chatting with some close coworkers at lunch. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is all common, and people may also use swears, fillers or off-color language in some settings, such as sex jokes, words like “um”, “uh” and swear words (Richard, 2024).
Figure 6.5 Two men talking normally
(Image downloaded from https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/b/customizable-cartoon-illustration-two-men-standing-next-to-each-other-engaging-conversation-men-talking-customizable-318033426.jpg )
5. Intimate: The usage of intimate register usually only appears between two individuals or in private conversations, it focuses more on the intonation instead of wording or grammer, such as some whisper between friends or inside topic among a group of friends.
Figure 6.6 Two close friend laughing togerther among some topic
(image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/aSKdAczwCSQaQHGA7)
Figure 6.7 A man presenting his idea during a company meeting
(image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/WhHHnnVWNbdxCwNp9 )
Being linked to the idea of register in pragmatic, appropriacy, on the other hand, refers to the decision surrounding the words and tones used by people for interaction with others under different situations.
If one isn't careful enough during their conversation with others, their wordings might be considered by others as “disrespectful” or even “threatening”.
For example, in a formal situation like a company meeting, a simple introduction in two different register could cause two very different results:
Scenario A: “Good morning everyone. At today’s meeting, I would like to present the idea of….”
Scenario B: “Howdy fellas! Ay How’sa goin my homies? Now, i gonna show yall my new idea….”
In Scenario A, it is noticeable that the speaker picks up a formal register in his introduction, which is acceptable in a company meeting, hence giving the meeting a great introduction. On the other hand, in scenario B, the speaker obviously picks up a casual or even intimate register approach, which isn’t acceptable in a formal meeting and hence might affect his presentation.
In summary, Register and Appropriacy are mainly about how the environment, audience, timing and purpose of one affect the real life usage of language.
6.2Words' Invisible Meaning
6.2Words' Invisible Meaning
6.2.1 Pragmatics Meaning VS Semantic Meaning
In linguistics, Pragmatics and Semantics are two important branches that study different aspects of language. Pragmatics focuses on the meaning of language in actual use, emphasizing the impact of context on language interpretation. semantics refers to the literal meaning of a word sentence, that is, the meaning in the dictionary, which does not depend on the meaning of the context of the text. So in daily life, "pragmatics" is more closely related to daily dialogue. For example: “It’s cold”, semantics meaning: the weather or temperature is very cold. Pragmatics: The speaker might want the listener to turn on the air conditioner or close the window. From the above example, we can get a preliminary understanding of the difference between semantic and pragmatic.
6.2.1 Figure
Justin Bieber's song named "What do you mean?"
However, because of certain features of pragmatics, people can easily misunderstand or get confused if they are not aware of the pragmatic norms of a language. Because in many sentences, the meaning of words is understood in a specific context. There is a classic example, that is, "What do you mean?" can be interpreted as angry or confused, but the specific meaning depends on the context. That is why we should study words’ invisible meaning.
6.2.2 Performative
"Performative" is a term in language theory, proposed by Austin, which refers to a sentence that completes an action or change by saying it, as opposed to a declarative sentence that only describes something.
6.2.2.1 Performative Verbs Definition
Performative verbs are best explained by performative verbs. Performative verbs are the verbs that perform an action or bring about a change in the world by being said. They are neither true nor false and are characterized by the property that "the utterance of the sentence is, or is a part of, performing an action. "In most cases language functions are not explicit. But for performative verbs, “function is explicit and the action is performed as they are spoken, include the following: declare, pronounce, dare, bet, warn, challenge, name, sentence, etc.”（Wang, 2011，p61）
Let's take a few examples：
1. Naming something: “I name this dog Lucky.”
2. Apologizing to somebody: “I apologize to you for my careless.”
3. Promise “I promise I will come here on time.” And there are many other performative verbs that I haven't given them all.
6.2.2.2 Felicity Conditions
“Performative verbs are only effective IF certain conditions are met”(Wang, 2011,p61). Felicity conditions ensure that the intended effect of an utterance is achieved within the social and linguistic context in which it is performed. Felicity conditions consist of propositional content conditions, preparatory conditions, sincerity conditions, essential conditions, social , contextual conditions and so on. For example, “Tom promised Mary that he would love her for the rest of his life.” And we know that this must meet felicity conditions before it can be considered a commitment to success. That is why this kind of talk rarely succeeds in reality.
6.2.2.3 Definition of Speech Acts
Speech acts, also known as "performative acts," are a fundamental concept in the field of pragmatics, which focuses on the use of language in context. The kind of action performed by the use of an utterance to communicate is called Speech Act (Austin, 1962)
6.2.2.4 Classification of Speech Acts
There are many kinds of Speech acts, including :
1. representatives: “It’s rainy.”
2. Directive: “Please pass that book.”
3. Commissive:” I promise to come here tomorrow.”
4. Expressive: “I am happy to see you.”
5. Declaration：“I now pronounce you husband and wife.”
Speech act theory provides a framework for understanding the multifaceted role of language in human communication and social life.
6.2.2.5 Characteristics of Speech Acts
There are three characteristics of speech acts, they are, dual nature, context dependency, and felicity conditions, which are related to pragmatics. Understanding speech acts is crucial for various fields, including linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and legal studies. It helps in analyzing how language functions in social interactions, how individuals use language to influence others, and how language can establish or modify social realities.
6.2.3.1 Definition of Words Invisible Meaning
To study pragmatics, we must study the words invisible meaning, which is crucial to learn pragmatics in daily life. In pragmatics, words’ invisible meaning refers to those meanings that are not explicitly expressed but can be inferred through context. communicative intention and other factors.
This kind of implicit meaning is an indispensable part of language communication, which enriches the expressiveness and understanding depth of language. Like so many classic lines from the girls in 《mean girl》.
6.2.3.2 Classification of Invisible Meaning
There are many kinds of them, and I will explain them and give examples below：
1) Semantic meaning: meaning that is not explicitly stated in the text but can be inferred from the text content, author's intention, time background and other factors. E.g. “It’s hot today.” It may imply that he wants to turn on the air conditioning.
2) Character implied meaning: refers to the symbolic meaning represented by the. character image implied by the description of the character's character, behavior, language, etc. E.g. “She's a pessimist.“ It may imply that she always maintains a pessimistic view in the face of difficulties.
3) Plot implied meaning: refers to the text through the arrangement and. development of the plot, implied motivation, correlation and moral behind the event. E.g.” He get up at 5 a.m. every day.” It may imply that he is a self-disciplined person.
4) image implied meaning: refers to the symbolic meaning or cultural connotation. implied by a specific image in the text. E.g. The imagery in many poems forms the artistic conception.
5) Rhetoric implied meaning: refers to the implied meaning of the use of rhetoric. devices in the text. E.g. “Time is like gold.” It may imply that time is extremely precious.
6) Structure implied meaning: refers to the meaning implied by the arrangement. and organization of text structure. E.g. “This book is interesting and meaningful.” It may imply the book has two advantages.
7) Language implied meaning: refers to the meaning implied by language skills. such as puns and homophonies of words in the text. E.g. “What he said is a mystery.” It may imply that his words is elusive.
8) Cultural implied meaning: refers to the meaning implied by cultural customs, values and other social and cultural factors reflected in the text. E.g. “Merry Christmas！” It may imply western traditional cultural.
9) Era implied meaning: refers to the meaning implied by the era background of text creation. E.g. “He's a fuddy-duddy.” It may imply he is a impenitent person.
Understanding these words’ invisible meaning helps us to better understand the application of pragmatics in life.
6.2.4 Tone And Intonation
Tone refers to the speaker's attitude, emotion, or intention conveyed through their voice, while intonation encompasses the patterns of pitch, stress, and rhythm in speech. And intonation refers to the melody, pitch, and stress patterns of speech that convey meaning beyond the words themselves.
6.2.4.1 Main Types of Tone And Intonation
There are several types of tone and intonation：
Intonation：
1）Pitch: The highness or lowness of the voice.
2）Rise and Fall: The pattern of the voice moving up and down.
3）Stress: Emphasizing certain syllables or words to highlight importance.
4）Rhythm and Timing: The speed and pauses in speech.
Tone:
1) Formal and informal
2) Seriousness and humor
6.2.4.2 Practical Applications
Tone and intonation plays a great role in expressing people's feelings, correctly conveying the meaning of the speaker, and increasing the language appeal.
“I like to eat apple?” means surprise and question.
“I like eating apples!” means excitement.
“Sorry?” means question.
“Sorry.” Means sure.
6.2.5 Summary
Pragmatics is a discipline that is different from semantics and based on the above and below environment. To study pragmatics, we have to talk about words’ invisible meaning, which can be expressed through performative verbs, speech acts, tone and intonation, which we can obviously feel in the process of communicating with others. So in the exposition I cited a lot of examples, to achieve the purpose of deepening understanding.
6.3 Grice's cooperative principle
6.3 Grice's cooperative principle
(Image download from: https://awinlanguage.blogspot.com/2012/04/grices-cooperative-principle.html)
The cooperative Principle proposed by Grice is a key concept in pragmatics. It presumes that effective communication is based on the cooperation of those involved in a conversation and the observance of particular conversational rules. This principle suggests that speakers and listeners engage in a mutual effort to achieve understanding and clarity in their interactions. Implicature boosts communication because it lets speakers convey fine details and intentions, relying on the cooperative principles of Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner (Grice, 1975). Listeners figure out the implied meanings by expecting relevant and honest information. This is extremely important for guiding conversations, making it possible for people to understand both the words spoken and the deeper meanings within.
(image download from: https://medium.com/@momcurated/the-cooperative-principle-6355ca00af9d)
(Video download from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xt4zFGdTUow)
6.3.1 The four Maxim of communication
6.3.1 The four Maxim of communication
The four principles of communication proposed by H.P. Grice provides important guidelines for daily life conversation. According to this framework, these guidelines are essential for speakers to follow in order to have meaningful and transparent communication. These guidelines help to increase understanding and improve the level of conversation by encouraging participants to speak in a collaborative and appropriate manner.
6.3.1.1 Maxim of quantity
6.3.1.1 Maxim of quantity
The first of these maxims, the quantity maxim, advises speakers to provide the right amount of information. Speakers should provide enough relevant details to effectively convey the message they want to convey while avoiding overwhelming the audience with unnecessary information (Grice, 1975). Maintaining this balance is essential to enhancing comprehension and engagement. They can maintain clarity and focus by providing enough context and detail without overwhelming the audience with irrelevant details. Ultimately, the goal is to ensure that the message is informative and easy to understand, allowing the audience to grasp the key ideas without confusion.
For example:
Too Little Information:
Question: "How was your vacation?"
Response: "It was fine."
Just Right
Response: "It was great! We visited the beach, explored some local markets, and tried some amazing seafood."
6.3.1.2 Maxim of quality
6.3.1.2 Maxim of quality
The second one of these maxims, is the Maxim of Quality. It emphasises the importance of honesty in the communication process. Speakers are encouraged not to make statements that they believe to be accurate or that do not have sufficient evidence (Grice, 1975). This guideline emphasizes the important role of honesty and integrity in communication. Misleading information interrupts the natural flow of a conversation and gradually erodes trust between participants. Therefore, following this principle is essential to promoting respectful and effective dialogue.
Example:
Unreliable Statement: "I heard that our company is going bankrupt next week."
reliable Statement: "I read in the financial report that the company is facing challenges, but I don’t believe bankruptcy is imminent."
6.3.1.3 Maxim of Relation
6.3.1.3 Maxim of Relation
The third one of these maxims, is the Maxim of relation. The Relationship Rule states that all statements should be closely related to the topic at hand, emphasising the importance of relevance in a conversation (Grice, 1975). This guideline is essential for maintaining clarity in a conversation because it prevents the conversation from veering off-topic or into irrelevant topics. The Relationship Rule encourages more open communication and increases the overall effectiveness of the interaction by ensuring that participants stay focused on relevant topics.
Example:
Question: "What do you think about the new restaurant in town?"
Irrelevant Response: "I went to the beach last summer." Relevant response: "I think the new restaurant has great reviews, and I'm excited to try their pasta."
6.3.1.4 Maxim of Manner
6.3.1.4 Maxim of Manner
Finally, there is the Maxim of manners. To promote good understanding and coordination, speakers should strive to speak fluently. Clarity of key objectives reduces ambiguity and increases audience engagement with the content (Grice, 1975). In short, well-structured speeches can effectively convey information and keep the audience engaged. Clear communication is key to promoting meaningful interactions and understanding of the intended message.
Example:
Unclear: "You know, just go down that way and then, like, take a turn or something."
Clear: "Go straight for two blocks, then turn left at the traffic light. The store will be on your right."
The four maxims within this principle are quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner. Guide speakers and listeners in their interaction, enabling them to convey and interpret messages accurately. This principle deepens our understanding of successful human communication's complexity and rules.
（Image download from: https://aridemvintoni.blogspot.com/2013/10/implicature.html)
6.3.2 Implicature
6.3.2 Implicature
Grice's cooperative principle emphasizes effective information transmission and communication in dialogue. However, we often break these maxims for reasons like less directness, humor, and politeness, while implicature enriches the depth and complexity of communication. There are two kinds of implicature: Conversational implicature and Conventional Implicature.
6.3.2.1 Conversational Implicature
6.3.2.1 Conversational Implicature
Conversational implicature emerges from the specific context of a conversation and is firmly grounded in Grice’s cooperative ideas. It takes place when a speaker, through their utterance, implies a meaning that surpasses the literal interpretation of the words. This phenomenon is founded on the shared knowledge and assumptions that both the speaker and the listener hold regarding the situation at hand. This shared understanding could be derived from common experiences, cultural backgrounds, or information that has been exchanged during the conversation. As a result, it enriches the conversation by adding an extra layer of meaning, making the exchange more profound and engaging (Wang, H. (2011).
Example:
For instance, if someone asks, “Do you want to go to the party?” and the answer is, “I have a lot of homework,” the hidden meaning might be that the person doesn’t want to go to the party. The listener gets this implied meaning from the context and the rules of conversation, especially the rule about things being relevant.
6.3.2.2 Conventional Implicature
6.3.2.2 Conventional Implicature
Conventional implicatures, on the other hand, have special characteristics because they are closely associated with specific words or phrases in the language. Unlike other forms of meaning that are strictly dependent on the context of the story, conventional meanings are supposed to be dependent on the context. This kind of meaning is an essential part of the structure of the language. It depends on the fixed and predefined meanings that come with specific words. These established meanings are deeply embedded in the structure of the language and are gradually built up through daily use and practice. When these specific words or phrases are used in communication, common sense takes effect immediately, adding a layer of meaning that remains constant and recognizable in different conversational contexts, enriching the overall meaning of the language regardless of the various contexts in which it is used (Thero, W. S. (2022).
Example:
For example, the word “but” usually means there’s a contrast between two statements (Thero, W. S. (2022). In the sentence “She is smart, but she can be quite lazy,” the use of “but” gives the idea that being smart and being lazy are kind of opposite traits. Unlike conversational implicature, which can change depending on the context, conventional implicature stays the same in different situations.
Both conversational implicature and conventional implicature, as they allow speakers to convey complex meanings and emotions through the right words. Knowing the meaning is essential to understanding discourse well as it helps the listener understand what is being said and what it means in a wider context.
6.3.3 Summary
6.3.3 Summary
In conclusion, Grice’s cooperative principles lay the foundation for effective communication. They articulate four main norms: quantity, quality, relationship, and manner. These norms push speakers to provide the right amount of information, be honest, stay on topic, and be clear. As a result, these norms improve clarity and mutual understanding during conversations.
Speakers sometimes intentionally violate these norms to convey a deeper meaning or set a particular tone. However, adhering to these norms more often can keep interactions orderly and exciting. Furthermore, being aware of ambiguity in conversations and everyday life can improve our understanding of simple meanings and help listeners capture subtle nuances.
In the end, Grice’s principles reveal the unspoken rules for successful communication, improving our skills in effectively conveying and interpreting information in different social contexts.
6.4 Politeness
6.4 Politeness
Figure 1: Daily greeting etiquette
(image downloaded from https://img95.699pic.com/xsj/0v/1a/us.jpg!/fh/300)
6.4.1 The definition of politeness and theoretical basis of politeness principles
The principle of politeness was proposed by British linguist Geoffrey Leech (1975) in his book "Principles of Pragmatics"(1967). Leech believes that in interpersonal communication, in addition to Grice's "cooperative principle," there is also an implicit and more subtle principle that guides people's speech behavior, namely the politeness principle. Moreover, Lakoff (1973) proposed three politeness Maxims: 1. Do not impose 2. Give options 3. Make receiver feel good. All in all, the core of the principle of politeness is to maintain a harmonious relationship between both parties in communication, reduce conflicts and friction, and ensure smooth and effective communication.
This article will discuss the principle of politeness in pragmatics from a pragmatic perspective and explore its importance and specific application in language communication. The principle of politeness is based on respect for others, which requires us to avoid hurting their feelings as much as possible in communication, while paying attention to balancing our own expression and the feelings of the other party.
Figure 2: Different polite expressions
(image downloaded from https://imgcache.dealmoon.com/thumbimg.dealmoon.com/dealmoon/e78/903/82c/f64cb0e64ef4f40982369b7.jpg_1000_560_13_92a7.jpg)
Figure 3:Brown and Levinson's politeness strategies
(video downloaded from
6.4.2 Politeness strategies
Brown&Levinson's Face Theory studied politeness strategies in pragmatics. They proposed in their classic work "Politics: Some Universals in Language Usage" in 1987 that "face" refers to an individual's self-image that they hope others will recognize and respect.
Brown and Levinson proposed four main politeness strategies:
1. Bald on-record: Direct and unmitigated speech acts, usually appropriate in close relationships or emergencies.
2. Positive Politeness: Using compliments, showing interest, and other means to satisfy the addressee's positive face.
3. Negative Politeness: Using indirect expressions, softened tone, and other means to minimize threats to the addressee's negative face.
4. Off-record: Using hints or metaphors to express oneself, avoiding direct threats to the addressee's face.
Even when facing the same situation, different people will choose different strategies. For example, when asking someone for help, we can choose different strategies:
Bald on-record: "Get that book for me."
Positive Politeness: "You're such a great person, could you help me get that book?"
Negative Politeness: "I know you're busy, but if possible, could you please help me get that book?"
Off-record: "That book looks heavy, I really wish someone could help me get it."
How to choose politeness strategies is related to personal personality, context, and the relationship between interlocutors. Different politeness strategies are suitable for different situations. By understanding and applying these strategies, communicators can enhance the effectiveness and harmony of their interactions.
6.4.2.1 Bald on-record
Usage Context:
Emergencies: When immediate action is required, and there is no time for politeness.
Close relationships: When the social distance is minimal, and the speaker is confident that directness will not be taken as impolite.
Examples:
In an emergency: "Get out of the building now!"
Among close friends: "Pass me the salt."
Bald on-record strategies are efficient and clear but can be seen as rude or overly blunt in more formal or distant social contexts.
6.4.2.2 Positive Politeness
Usage Context:
Building rapport: When the speaker wants to create or maintain a positive relationship with the listener.
Social equals or subordinates: Often used among peers or when the speaker is in a lower status position.
Examples:
Compliments: "You’re really good at this; could you help me out?"
Showing interest: "How have you been? By the way, can you lend me your notes?"
Positive Politeness strategies work well to create a sense of camaraderie and mutual respect but may seem insincere if overused.
6.4.2.3 Negative Politeness
Usage Context:
Formal settings: Where maintaining a level of distance and respect is important.
Requests and apologies: Situations where the speaker is imposing on the listener.
Examples:
Indirect requests: "I was wondering if you might be able to help me."
Apologetic expressions: "I hate to bother you, but could you…?"
Negative Politeness strategies are effective in showing respect and deference but can come across as overly formal or distant in more relaxed settings.
6.4.2.4 Off-record
Usage Context:
Avoiding direct imposition: When the speaker wants to avoid putting the listener in a position where they have to explicitly accept or refuse.
Cultural contexts: In cultures where indirectness is a norm and direct requests are seen as impolite.
Examples:
Hints: "It’s so hot in here," implying someone should open a window.
Metaphors or rhetorical questions: "I wonder where all the chocolate went," implying someone ate it.
Off-record strategies allow for plausible deniability and minimize the risk of face-threatening acts but can sometimes lead to misunderstandings if the hint is not picked up.
Figure 3: High-Context Cultures and Low-Context Cultures
(Image downloaded from
6.4.3 Cross-Cultural Politeness
There are significant differences in the expression and understanding of politeness in different cultures, and understanding these differences is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication. American anthropologist Edward T. Hall (1914) proposed that different cultures should be divided into high context culture and low context culture. In these two cultures, context and language have different positions in communication and also play different roles.
6.4.3.1 High-Context Cultures vs. Low-Context Cultures
High-Context Cultures:
Characteristics: Rely on background information and non-verbal cues for communication, emphasizing relationships and indirectness.
Politeness Manifestation: Tend to use off-record strategies and negative politeness strategies to avoid direct face-threatening acts.
Examples: In Japan, people often express requests indirectly to avoid imposing directly. For instance, at the dinner table, if someone wants soy sauce, they might say, "This dish would taste even better with some soy sauce."
Low-Context Cultures:
Characteristics: Depend on explicit, direct language for communication, valuing efficiency and clarity.
Politeness Manifestation: Tend to use bald on-record strategies and positive politeness strategies to express needs and opinions directly.
Examples: In the United States, people typically express their needs and opinions directly. For instance, if they need help, they might say, "Please hand me that book."
6.4.3.2 Solutions of Cross-Culture Politeness
Cultural Sensitivity Training: Enhance cross-cultural sensitivity through training to understand different cultural politeness norms and communication styles.
Observation and Learning: In a new cultural environment, observe the local people's polite behaviors, and learn and imitate their expressions.
Openness and Inclusiveness: Maintain an open mindset, respect, and accept different cultural politeness norms, and avoid judging others by one's own cultural standards.
6.4.4 Summary
The study of politeness principles in pragmatics reveals a complex yet crucial aspect of human communication. Understanding and applying these principles can not only improve individual language abilities but also foster more harmonious interpersonal relationships.
6.5 Cross -Cultural Pragmatics
6.5 Cross -Cultural Pragmatics
6.5.1 Introduction to Cross-Cultural Pragmatics
In today's globalized world, where daily interactions among people from diverse cultural backgrounds are the norm, the study of cross-cultural pragmatics becomes indispensable. Effective communication across cultural divides is crucial not only for fostering personal relationships but also for enhancing business operations, diplomatic engagements, and international collaborations. Cross-cultural pragmatics delves into the subtleties of language use across different cultures, helping us minimise misunderstandings and forge stronger interpersonal connections.
6.5.2 Theoretical Framework
6.5.2.1 Speech Act Theory
Speech act theory is pivotal in cross-cultural pragmatics. A single speech act, such as making a request or offering an apology, can be executed differently across cultures. In some societies, direct requests might be perceived as impolite, whereas in others, they are considered straightforward and acceptable. By grasping the speech act norms of various cultures, we can tailor our communication to better fit specific cultural contexts.
6.5.2.2 Politeness Principles
Politeness norms differ significantly between cultures. What one culture deems polite might appear overly formal or even insincere to another. For instance, while some cultures favour elaborate compliments and expressions of gratitude, others might find such behaviour excessive. Being aware of these variations in politeness can help us communicate in a manner that is both respectful and suitable.
6.5.2.3 Cultural Values and Beliefs
Cultural values and beliefs shape communication styles and language use. Values related to hierarchy, individualism versus collectivism, and directness versus indirectness influence how people express themselves and interact. For example, in cultures that emphasise hierarchy, individuals might use formal language and deferential speech when addressing superiors.
(Image downloaded from: https://www.reddit.com/r/autism/comments/zwpl6y/lets_all_move_to_korea_joke/?rdt=43934)
6.5.3 Specific Manifestations of Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Differences
6.5.3.1 Speech Act Differences
Requests: Cultures vary in their approach to making requests. Some prefer indirect language and hedging, while others are more accustomed to direct requests. For instance, in Japanese culture, it is more polite to say, “Would it be possible for you to...?” rather than a blunt “Do this for me.”
Apologies: The expression of apologies also differs across cultures. Some cultures expect a sincere apology to include taking responsibility and offering compensation, whereas in others, a simple “I'm sorry” is sufficient.
Thanks: Expressions of gratitude can vary widely. Some cultures are more effusive in their thanks, while others consider a brief “Thank you” to be appropriate.
6.5.3.2 Politeness Strategy Differences
Directness vs. Indirectness: Some cultures prize direct communication for its honesty and efficiency, while others favour indirect communication to avoid conflict and maintain harmony.
Modesty vs. Assertiveness: Attitudes toward modesty and assertiveness differ among cultures. In some, being modest and downplaying achievements is seen as polite, while in others, assertiveness and self-promotion are encouraged.
Formality vs. Informality: The degree of formality in language use can vary greatly. Some cultures consistently use formal language, whereas others lean towards informality.
6.5.3.3 Nonverbal Communication Differences
Body Language: Gestures, facial expressions, and body postures can carry different meanings. For example, a thumbs-up gesture is positive in some cultures but offensive in others.
Eye Contact: Appropriate eye contact varies; some cultures see direct eye contact as respectful and attentive, while others may perceive it as confrontational.
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6.5.4 Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failures and Coping Strategies
Cross-cultural pragmatic failures arise when individuals from different cultural backgrounds misinterpret each other's language use and communication styles. These failures can lead to embarrassment, offence, and strained relationships. Common types of pragmatic failures include:
6.5.4.1 Pragmatic-linguistic Failures
These occur when speakers use language inappropriately due to a lack of understanding of the target language's pragmatic norms, such as using an incorrect tone or making an unsuitable request.
6.5.4.2 Sociopragmatic Failures
These happen when individuals do not grasp the social and cultural norms of the target culture, such as making an inappropriate joke or failing to adhere to proper etiquette.
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(Image downloaded from https://npp.org.hk/npp/article/p/%E5%B3%B0%E6%9C%83%E8%83%8C%E5%BE%8C)
Strategies to mitigate cross-cultural pragmatic failures include:
6.5.4.3 Enhancing Cultural Awareness
Learn about the cultures of those you interact with, including their values, beliefs, communication styles, and social norms.
6.5.4.4 Observing and Imitating
Watch how people from the target culture communicate and try to emulate their language use and behaviour.
6.5.4.5 Seeking Feedback
Request feedback from native speakers or those experienced in cross-cultural communication to identify areas for improvement.
6.5.5 Case Studies
6.5.5.1 Business Negotiations
Imagine a business negotiation between representatives from cultures with contrasting communication styles—one favouring directness and quick resolution, the other emphasising an indirect approach and relationship building. Without understanding these cultural differences, the negotiation could be riddled with misunderstandings and conflicts. Applying cross-cultural pragmatics principles allows negotiators to adapt their styles and achieve mutual understanding.
6.5.5.2 International Education
In a classroom with students from various cultural backgrounds, differing expectations and communication styles can pose challenges. Some students may be more vocal and participatory, while others might be reserved. By recognizing these differences and employing suitable teaching methods, educators can foster a more inclusive and effective learning environment.
6.5.5.3 Tourism
Tourists often face cross-cultural communication challenges when visiting foreign countries. Misunderstandings and difficulties can arise from not knowing the local language or cultural norms. Learning about the destination culture beforehand and being open to new experiences can enhance the travel experience.
6.5.6Conclusion
Cross-cultural pragmatics is a vital and intriguing field that aids in understanding and navigating the intricacies of intercultural communication. By recognizing the differences in speech acts, politeness strategies, and nonverbal cues across cultures, we can communicate more effectively and build stronger relationships with people from diverse backgrounds. Cultivating cultural awareness and sensitivity is key to successful cross-cultural interactions, and cross-cultural pragmatics equips us with the necessary tools and insights to achieve this objective.
6.6 Pragmatic and technology
6.6 Pragmatic and technology
Figure 6.6.1: pragmatics contributes to this communication process between human and machine.
(Downloaded from https://www.xenioo.com/what-is-a-chatbot/)
Pragmatics, as a subfield of linguistics that studies how context influences the interpretation of language, is experiencing significant developments in the intersection with technology. With the rise of artificial intelligence, natural language processing, and conversational agents, researchers are exploring how pragmatic principles can be applied to improve communication between humans and machines. Meanwhile, innovative technologies are enriching the educational methods and principles in applying personalized study plans for linguistic learners. Overall, the integration of pragmatics into linguistics and technology is opening up new possibilities for enhancing human-computer interaction and improving the efficiency and effectiveness of communication in various domains. As the innovation in technology continues, the field of pragmatic language gets further expanded too.
Figure 6.6.2: Pragmatics and technology have tight connections.
6.6.1 Pragmatics in technology developments
6.6.1 Pragmatics in technology developments
Since the term “pragmatics” stands in the usage of language in human society, it plays a critical role in the development of technology. Therefore, as the attempts of decoding and reproducing human language with artificial intelligence continues, understanding how to apply pragmatic rules into the innovative technologies becomes important to the developers. In this chapter, we discuss the connections between pragmatics and technologies as well as how these two fields contribute to each other.
Figure 6.6.3:NLP in AI.
(https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQFGncNP3SJr5nqKr8CNre4zeFotDF3De9I_g&s)
6.6.1.1 Natural Language Processing
6.6.1.1 Natural Language Processing
Natural Language Processing(NLP) as shown in figure 6.6.3 is like the central bridge connecting human language and the machines. This is where machines decode, understand and produce human language to reach various purposes. No matter if it is a chatbot or a self driving vehicle system, the first step in their services is always related with NLP, in which pragmatics plays a big role. Only with pragmatic principles can machines understand the context, intentions, and implications of human language as the user inputs natural language just like what they use in real life. As a result, user’s requirements can be better understood and executed by the systems under the guidance of pragmatic principle, leading towards more validity during man-machine communications.
Figure 6.6.4:With pragmatic principles applied to AI, they might settle this argument on psychology therapies.
(Downloaded from images)
6.6.1.2 Virtual Assistants
6.6.1.2 Virtual Assistants
Apart from understanding the actual intentions behind words, pragmatic rules can help virtual assistants to identify the gestures, body languages and facial expressions to better interpret the user's “hidden” intentions. For example, with pragmatic principles planted into a kind of psychological treatment artificial intelligence assistant,which is being developed nowadays(Figure 6.6.4), it can dive deeper into the patients’ mind to make sure that their true feelings are understood and needs are met.
Figure 6.6.5: Monitoring social media activities can be more effective with tech-pragmatic integration.(Downloaded from https://www.eclincher.com/articles/social-media-monitoring-tools)
6.6.1.3 Social media
6.6.1.3 Social media
When we look at people’s daily life, social media takes up quite a lot of space. While the developers design systems to monitor users’ preference and legality, it is necessary to consider pragmatic aspects of language. One example is sentiment analysis, a technology that identifies and analyzes the emotional tone of text, with which the platform can better study user behavior by clarifying their words through pragmatical logics. In this way, the platform will be able to offer the users their preferred contents with more accuracy. Pragmatic principles can also allow the system to automatically identify illegal or unfriendly intentions behind words that seem normal with higher efficiency and accuracy(Figure 6.6.5) as well.
This video explaines what Natural Language Processing is and why is it critical.
Figure 6.6.6: NLP system connects linguistics and computer science with applications of pragmatic principles.
6.6.2The core of language in AI and programming
6.6.2The core of language in AI and programming
Language is a basic concept for AI and programming. It seems to be distinct from human language, but they actually serve similar purposes. In this part, we focus on why pragmatic linguistics matters in developing natural language processing (NLP) systems. As introduced in previous chapters, NLP system is necessary for man-machine communication. We can see it as what machines use to translate human language into machine language. Pragmatics in linguistics plays a crucial role in this context by providing insights into how language is used in real-world communication and helping machines interpret the contextual cues and implications of human language. Without which, machines are unable to understand the user’s intentions.
More specifically, developers have to take pragmatic factors like speech acts, speaker intentions, presuppositions, implicatures and contexts into consideration in order to make the NLP systems accurately interpret and produce language with appropriateness for users with various identities.For example, in chatbot development, understanding pragmatic principles such as relevance, informativeness, and cooperation is crucial for creating conversational agents that can engage in meaningful and contextually appropriate interactions with users. By applying pragmatic insights, chatbots can generate responses that consider the implicit meaning and intentions behind user inputs, leading to more natural and effective communication.
6.6.3Ways technology contributes to pragmatic
Figure 6.6.7: Revolutionizing English Language Teaching with AI also helps people study pragmatics.(https://media.licdn.com/dms/image/D4E12AQFfEl4FF5Kasw/article-cover_image-shrink_720_1280/0/1681205616770?e=2147483647&v=beta&t=tFmMpCRWthogbE1x-7dyJNRmiOeVVHqBfDsKS07bbFY)
6.6.3.1 Language studies
6.6.3.1 Language studies
Innovative linguistic teaching methods are appearing in classrooms nowadays. By collecting data from language learners’ daily language use, they can see their problems more intuitively and adapt to the pragmatic principles in a more natural way. An AI chatbot is also able to give precise and customised instructions on how to express their intentions appropriately with pragmatic skills to the learner after conversations.
6.6.3.2 Text comprehension
6.6.3.2 Text comprehension
Another part where technology can support language study and pragmatic research is text comprehension. While there are not any clear evidence or references on certain language materials, AI assistants can retrieve resources from the database and analyse the possible original meanings of the materials and offer inspiration for researchers based on pragmatic principles.
6.6.4 Issues on tech-pragmatic integration
Context Sensitivity
Context Sensitivity
Although the technology-pragmatic integration has a bright future, some issues have appeared in recent days during the practice of connecting the fields.
First of all there is the context sensitivity. The ultimate effect of AI application on linguistics is that it can identify and process natural human language with no mistakes. Currently, however, technology often struggles to accurately interpret and respond to the contextual cues and nuances of human language. Machines may not see through the textual meaning of words and therefore causing misunderstandings and misinterpretations. In pragmatic studies specifically, requirements on context input are still necessary for machines to improve accuracy.
Cultural variability
Cultural variability
Cultural variability is an unignorable problem too. Different cultures and languages may contain various pragmatic rules, which makes it easier to form ambiguity and vagueness.This is posing a challenge for technology that aims to provide universal communication solutions. Machines may not always be able to adapt to the cultural nuances and expectations of users, leading to communication breakdowns and misunderstandings. By implanting multiple sets of pragmatic rules into the system as introduced in previous chapters, combined with the study ability of AI, this problem can be solved.
Ethical considerations
Ethical considerations
One critical difference between a human and a machine is whether to consider ethical problems. For instance, AI may not have the awareness to protect users’ private information while collecting data from their daily language use. Developers should set boundaries to ensure that ethical considerations are taken into account to protect user rights and ensure fair and unbiased communication.
User acceptance and trust
User acceptance and trust
Whether the technology products within pragmatical or linguistic application scenarios have got rid of the problems eventually, they still need to earn the users’ acceptance and trust. Users may be hesitant to engage with automated systems that do not accurately interpret their intentions or emotions, leading to scepticism and resistance towards technology-driven communication solutions.
6.7 Reference
6.7 Reference
Arrindell, W. A. (2003). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations: Geert Hofstede, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California, 2001, xx + 596 pp., Price £65.00 [Review of Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations: Geert Hofstede, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California, 2001, xx + 596 pp., Price £65.00]. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(7), 861–862. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00184-5
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. https://www.lib.eduhk.hk/permalink/record/cdi_crossref_primary_10_2307_3326622
DYKSTRA, L. D. (2009). Culturally Speaking: Culture, Communication, and Politeness Theory 2nd ed. edited by SPENCER-OATEY, HELEN [Review of Culturally Speaking: Culture, Communication, and Politeness Theory 2nd ed. edited by SPENCER-OATEY, HELEN]. The Modern Language Journal, 93(4), 646–648. Blackwell Publishing Inc. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00947.x
Deda, N. (2013). The role of Pragmatics in English Language Teaching. Pragmatic Competence. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. https://doi.org/10.5901/ajis.2012.v2n4p63
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In BRILL eBooks (pp. 41–58). https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_003
Gregersen. (1988). Brown and Levinson: politeness: some universals in language usage (Book Review) [Review of Brown and Levinson: politeness: some universals in language usage (Book Review)]. American Ethnologist, 15(4), 812-. American Ethnological Society. https://books.google.com
Krahnke, K. (1996). Intercultural communication: A discourse approach. Ron Scollon and Suzanne Wong Scollon. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995. Pp. xiii + 271. $49.95 cloth. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18(3), 389–389. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100015242
Lakoff, R. T. (1973). The logic of politeness; or minding your p's and q's. Papers from the Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, 9, 292-305. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9pz7m8bw/qt9pz7m8bw.pdf
Niu, M. (2023). The origin and development of pragmatics as a study of meaning: semiotic perspective. Language and Semiotic Studies, 9(1), 54–78. https://doi.org/10.1515/lass-2023-0002
Nordquist, R. (2024, July 16). What Is Register in Linguistics? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-1692038.
Pederson, E. (1991). Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: The Semantics of Human Interaction [Review of Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: The Semantics of Human Interaction]. Anthropological Linguistics, 33(1), 81–86. Department of Anthropology and the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30028015
Sermol, D. M. (2001). Communication Across Cultures: Stella Ting-Toomey, The Guilford Press, New York, 1999, 310 pp [Review of Communication Across Cultures: Stella Ting-Toomey, The Guilford Press, New York, 1999, 310 pp]. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25(4), 459–462. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(00)00015-8
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failure. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 91–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/4.2.91
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Wang, H. (2011). Conversational Implicature in English Listening Comprehension. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(5). https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.5.1162-1167
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What is pragmatics? (n.d.). The University of Sheffield. https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/linguistics/home/all-about-linguistics/about-website/branches-linguistics/pragmatics/what pragmatics#:~:text=Pragmatics%20outlines%20the%20study%20of,as%20focusing%20on%20implied%20meanings.
6.8 MC Questions
Where did the term "Pragmatic" first originate from?
A) China
B) Greek
C) Egypt
D) Japan
Answer : A
If you are joking about an inside topic with your best friends, which register should you use?
A) Casual
B) Funny
C) Tactical
D) Intimate
Answer: D
What do appropriacy refers to in terms of pragmatic?
A) Whether the people say is suitable or not
B) The decision surrounding the words and tones used by people for interaction with others under different situation, e.g. the people they are interacting with
C) The choice about the people's tone used for their communication
D) The decision surrounding the wordings and facial expression used by people during their communication with others under different circumstances
Answer : B
How does the Cooperative Principle relate to politeness theory?
A) The Cooperative Principle focuses solely on the factual accuracy of statements, while politeness theory is concerned with social norms and respect in communication.
B) Both theories emphasize the importance of clear communication but do not address social dynamics in conversation.
C) The Cooperative Principle underlies the mechanisms of effective communication, while politeness theory explains how individuals manage face, social status, and relationships within that communication.
D) Politeness theory disregards the Cooperative Principle, as it prioritizes indirectness over clarity in conversation.
Answer: C
In cross-cultural communication, which of the following is likely to cause cross-cultural pragmatic failures?
A) Using the same politeness strategies as in one's own culture when communicating with people from other cultures.
B) Observing and imitating the communication styles of people from the target culture.
C) Seeking feedback from native speakers to identify areas for improvement.
D) Understanding and adapting to the cultural values and beliefs of the target culture.
Answer: A
In cross-cultural communication, which of the following is an example of speech act difference?
A) In all cultures, people use direct requests equally.
B) In some cultures, indirect language for requests is considered impolite.
C) In every culture, there is a fixed way of making requests.
D) In certain cultures, people always use the same words for requests.
Answer: B
Performative verbs are the verbs that ___________ or bring about a change in the world by being said.
A) Perform an action
B) Convey the speaker's thoughts
C) Avoid ambiguity
D) Ease tensions
Answer：A
What is the most important consideration when using politeness strategies in cross-cultural communication?
A) Speaking speed
B) Language choice
C) Cultural background and customs
D) Grammatical accuracy
Answer: C
Different cultures and languages may contain various pragmatic rules, which makes it easier to form （ ） and vagueness.
A) Anxiety
B) Ambiguity
C) Distinctions
D) Connections
Answer: B
Natural Language Processing(NLP) is where machines decode, understand and ( ) human language to reach various purposes.
A) Analyse
B) Comprehend
C) Define
D) Produce
Answer: D
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