Chapter 07 Discourse Analysis

Student: Ng Yat Tung, Ngok Tsz Wa, Tong Hua, Le Thi Huyen

7.1 Introduction to Discourse Analysis

What is Discourse Analysis?

"Discourse analysis" is a qualitative research method that examines language use in social contexts. This method usually refers to a research approach in which language material, such as talk or written texts, and sometimes other material altogether, is examined as evidence of phenomena beyond the individual person. (Taylor, S., 2013) It focuses on how language constructs meaning and reflects social dynamics, power relations, and cultural norms. Discourse analysis goes beyond the study of grammar and vocabulary to explore the broader implications of language in communication, including the context in which it occurs and the relationships between speakers and listeners. It can be applied to various forms of communication, including spoken conversations, written texts, and visual media, to uncover underlying meanings and social issues.

Figure 7.1: Discourse Analysis

(Image generated by Padlet AI)

7.1.1 Key concept of Discourse Analysis

(context, power dynamics, intertextuality, speech act)

1. Context

Discourse analysis underscores the position of context-social, cultural, or historical that can influence the usage and meaning of language. In order to understand the context, one will find the meanings of intentions that will be left unsaid in communication.

Example: In a formal business meeting, a manager might say, "I appreciate everyone's input."

In this context, the manager's role and the formal setting shape how the statement is perceived as a sign of leadership and respect.

The example above shows that different contexts shape the meaning of discourse. Understanding the notion of context is very important in the analysis of language use since words in themselves cannot show the subtlety of communication.

2. Power Dynamics

Discourse analysis has generally examined how language represents and maintains the structure of power and ideologies within any given society. It does this by demonstrating the way in which language maintains support for, or can resist, particular social norms and hierarchies.

Formal vs. Informal Language

The choice of language can signal power relations based on formality.

Examples: (during a meeting at the workplace)

managers (using formal language): I would like to propose a strategy.
employees (using informal language): What do you think about this idea?

The tone that the manager uses is formal, which signifies his authority in the workplace, and sets up a hierarchical tone for the discussion.

This example above demonstrates how power dynamics are embedded in discourse and how language choices can reflect, reinforce, or challenge authority and status. Analyzing these dynamics provides insights into social interactions and the broader societal structures they represent.

Figure 7.2: Business Meeting

(Image generated by Padlet AI)

3. Intertextuality

This concept concerns the relationship between texts and discourses. Analysts examine how pieces of discourse refer or impinge on other discourses in order to assert larger cultural stories.

Examples of intertextuality: political speeches, literary adaptations, films, social media…

Intertextuality in discourse analysis demonstrates the way texts are connected with one another and continually inform each other. Meaning which analysts continue to find in such linkages has to do with deeper meanings, cultural implications, or even how language conveys social realities.

Figure 7.3: Political Speeches

(Image generated by Padlet AI)

4. Speech Act

This approach takes into account what function language is serving within a communication. It considers how the utterances perform certain actions-such as promising or commanding-and the reception of those actions by others.

Examples of speech act: Assertive, directives, commissives, expressives, declarations,

Assertive: "Could you please pass the salt?"

This request directs the listener to take action, and the phrasing indicates politeness.

Directives

Directives are used in order to get the listener to do something.

Example: "Could you please pass the salt?"

This request directs the listener to take action, and by using the word "please," it denotes politeness.

Commissives

Commissives commit the speaker to a certain course of action.

Example: "I promise to finish the report by Friday."

In this example, the speaker commits to doing something; hence, it shows obligation.

Expressives

Expressives denote feelings or emotions of the speaker.

Example: "I'm so sorry for your loss."

This speech act denotes a feeling of condolence. The speaker shows that he or she also has feelings concerning what the listener is going through.

Declarations

Declarations are speech acts that change something in the external world, merely by virtue of being uttered.

Example: "I hereby pronounce you husband and wife."

This utterance marries two individuals. The speech act itself is creating change in the external world.

Promissives

These are similar to the commissives but can involve the speaker demonstrat

ing a future intention or commitment.

Example: "I will help you with your project next week".

This describes an action which is to be performed in the future by the speaker.

Questions

Questions are used to gather information or clarification.

Example : "At what time is the meeting?"

This utterance speech act asks for information to be provided by the listener for an answer.

Apologies

Apologies show regret or remorse

Example : "I am sorry for my mistake."

This utterance realises an error and the speaker's contrition.

Compliments

Compliments realise admiration or praise.

Example: "You did a wonderful presentation."

This speech act positively reinforces the listener's actions or qualities.

Advice

Advice offers suggestions or recommendations.

Example: "I think you ought to apply for that job."

This statement offers guidance based on the speaker's perspective.

Speech acts are indispensable in the understanding of how language works in social life. Through discourse analysis, it will be possible for a researcher to see in detail what utterances intend to do, the roles taken up by participants, and the cultural norms shaping communication. Each kind of speech act plays a different role, adding richness to human interaction.

Figure 7.1.2: Bank Manager and Customer

(Image generated by Padlet AI)

7.1.2 Social relationships

a customer speaking to a bank manager

Customer: "Good morning, I’d like to discuss some unexpected charges on my account."

Bank Manager: "Good morning! I’d be happy to help you with that. Can you please provide your account number?"

In this dialogue, the bank manager assumes an authoritative role and uses a highly respectful and professional tone to make the interaction easy. The customer makes an initial complaint but again uses a respectful approach, knowing the manager is in a position of authority. This dialogue is a good example of an interaction where a customer seeks service and the manager is bound by duty to provide the same.

7.1.3 Shared knowledge

an application for a loan

Loan Officer: "Welcome! I see you’re applying for a home loan. Given the current interest rates, you might want to consider a fixed-rate option."

Applicant: "Yes, I’ve heard that fixed rates are better in a fluctuating market. I want to avoid any surprises with my monthly payments."

In this conversation, both the loan officer and the applicant reveal some level of shared knowledge in issues related to finance, the type of loan, and the prevailing market conditions. The way the applicant has phrased it as a "fluctuating market" indicates awareness of economic trends, while the loan officer advises on an aspect that results from common practice in the industry. This shared knowledge enables them to discuss the process of application with much insight; hence, effective communication and clear understanding take place.

Figure 7.1.4: Friends Meeting

(Image generated by Padlet AI)

7.1.4 Discourse type

conversation between two friends

A: Hey, what are you up to this weekend?

B: Not much, just thinking about going hiking. How about you?

A: I was thinking of checking out that new movie.

B: Oh, I heard it's really good! What time were you thinking?

A: Maybe the 7 PM show?

B: Sounds good! Want to grab dinner before? Alex: Definitely! Let’s meet at 5?

This example therefore shows that conversation analysis may reveal underlying structures, such as turn-taking and topic management, and politeness strategies that all help to achieve successful interpersonal interactions.

Figure 7.1.5: Doctor and Patient

(Image generated by Padlet AI)

7.1.5 Grammar and lexis

standard versus dialectical syntactical structures
A conversation between a doctor and patient

Doctor: "How have you been feeling lately? Any issues with your breathing?"

Patient: "Well, I ain't been feelin' too good. My chest feels tight, y'know?"

Doctor: "I see. Have you experienced any wheezing or coughing?"

Patient: "Yeah, I cough a lot, especially at night. It’s like I can’t catch my breath."

This shows the variance within the grammatical structure, and lexical choice among an expert in health and the patient he is attending to. Where the use of formal syntactic structures and technical lexica is employed by the physician that is opposed to the syntactical use of dialect by a patient with everyday lexis. Thus, illustrating where discourse analysis can reflect those underlying social dynamics and communication gaps with people.

Figure 7.1.6: Tourist and Valley Girl

(Image generated by Padlet AI)

7.1.6 Sounds and letters

standard vs dialectical pronunciation (standard British English vs valley girl)
A conversation between a British tourist and an American teenage girl

British Tourist: "Excuse me, could you recommend a good place to have tea around here?"

Valley Girl: "Oh my God, like, totally! You have to go to this cute little café down the street. It’s, like, super adorbs!"

British Tourist: "That sounds lovely! What do they serve?"

Valley Girl: "They have, like, the best pastries and their matcha lattes are, like, everything! You’ll totally love it."

British Tourist: "I do enjoy a good pastry. Do they have scones as well?"

Valley Girl: "Scones? Like, for sure! But you have to try their avocado toast too. It’s, like, so good!"

Standard British Accent

Pronunciation:

The British tourist speaks clearly, using standard expressions: "Excuse me, could you recommend a good place to have tea around here?

Vocabulary:

"lovely" and "pastry" showcase a more traditional British lexicon.

Valley Girl Accent (American Teenager):

Pronunciation: The Valley Girl uses a more relaxed and informal tone with distinctive vowel sounds: “Oh my God” and “like” are frequently used for emphasis.
Lexical Choices: Phrases such as “totally,” “adorbs,” and “everything” are characteristic of Valley Girl speech, emphasizing enthusiasm and informality.The frequent use of "like" as a filler word is a hallmark of this accent.

Phonetic Differences:

Vowel Sounds: The Valley Girl accent often features pronounced diphthongs and elongated vowel sounds. For instance, “cute” might be pronounced with a more drawn-out vowel.

Intonation: The Valley Girl's intonation often rises at the end of statements, which can make them sound more like questions. For example, “You’ll totally love it?” has an upward inflection.

7.1.7 Conversational mechanism

Conversational mechanism refers to the underlying processes and structures that govern how conversations are conducted. It involves the rules and strategies that participants use in conducting turn allocation, creating coherence, signalling to understand, and sorting out social relationships.

For example, when we are agreeing to someone, we can use both verbal and non-verbal responses. For verbal responses, we might say “uh-huh”, “mm-hmm”, “I see”. For non-verbal responses, we can use nodding, eyebrow-raising or smiling.

Also, when we disagree with someone, we might soften our tone or use polite language to maintain harmony and manage relationships. For example, we might use "I see your point, but I think…" or “I understand what you are explaining, but I have a different point of view.”

For coherence, it is to make sure the conversation makes sense.

For instance, when we are telling a story, we use "first,", "then," and "finally" to structure our narrative so listeners can follow the sequence of events.

Figure 7.1.7.1: Agreeing

Image from: https://www.ha85.com/storage/words/18/18158/word/nodding.jpg

Figure 7.1.7.2: List of Transition Words

Image from: https://www.theassignmentninjas.com/storage/images/different-types-of-transition-word_1695897713.png

Figure 7.1.8: Customer and Barista

Image generated by Padlet

7.1.8 Discourse Function

A 'Discourse Function' refers to the role that plays in combining the meanings of sentences in a text to derive the overall meaning of the text. It involves operations like set theoretic intersection, merges over discourse representation structures, or relational composition, depending on the variety of discourse semantics adopted.

For example:

A: "Hi, can I get a medium latte, please?"

Function: Directive (making a request)

Barista: "Sure! Would you like that hot or iced?"

Function: Interrogative (asking for clarification or giving options)

A: "Hot, please. Also, can I have a blueberry muffin as well?"

Function: Directive (adding to the request)

Barista: "That’ll be $5.50. Do you want to pay with cash or a card?"

Function: Interrogative (seeking information)

In this case, every utterance has a specific discourse function that contributes to the whole conversation. It demonstrates how language is to communicate effectively in society and daily life.

7.2 Genre Analysis

7.2.1 Definition of Genre

Genre analysis means a systematic analysis and description of communicative practices, putting much emphasis on the conventions and patterns used to make sense of and interact with the world. The scope of this subject area includes researching the systems, categories, and relationships of genres, as well as their historical, social, and ideological contexts. (Ron Asher, 1993)

Genre analysis is also an approach to discourse analysis that tends to focus more on the conventions and structures of texts or communicative events. This method becomes particularly useful in the areas of linguistics, education, and communication studies for understanding how genre influences meaning-making and communication practices.

Genre Analysis adds to our understanding of how language is used within an important discourse community, and is a model of applied linguistics in its best sense - it draws on linguistic and sociolinguistic theory to clarify the nature of language use and language learning in an educational setting. (John, 1990)

Figure 7.2.2.1: A Carbonara Recipe

Image from: https://raketcontent.com/Brown_Scrapbook_Fish_Cake_Recipes_A4_Document_20240915_095002_0000_970d7a02f3.jpg

7.2.2 Types of Genres

Genres can be broadly divided into two categories: factual and expressive/imaginative. Each category serves distinct purposes and employs different structures.

For Factual Genres, these genres focus on conveying information and include:

- Expository: This genre presents arguments or explanations. E.g. a research paper discussing climate change.
- Procedural: This genre provides instructions on how to perform a task. E.g. A recipe for carbonara recipe. (Figure 7.2.2.1)
- Explanatory: This genre involves writing factual reports that explain processes or phenomena, such as a scientific report detailing the water cycle or an instruction manual of a computer (Figure 7.2.2.2).

For Expressive/Imaginative Genres: These genres emphasize personal expression and creativity. Examples include:

Narrative: This genre tells a story, such as a short story or a novel. For instance, the short heroic novel by Ernest Hemingway “The Old Man and the Sea“.
Recount: Similar to the narrative but more personal and often disorganized, recounts involve sharing personal experiences. E.g. A diary of a normal day.
Observation: This genre describes a scene or picture, allowing individuals to express their perceptions. An art critique that describes a painting's elements and emotional impact.

Figure 7.2.2.2: An Instruction Manual of a Computer

Image from: https://clintonsmith.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Hi-Grade-Computer-Manual-Desktop.jpg

Figure 7.2.2.3: The Book "The Old Man and The Sea"

Image from: https://www.wildriverpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/WRPWRPw-the-old-man-and-the-sea-03212021.png

Figure 7.2.3: Writing A Letter

(Image generated by Padlet)

7.2.3 Contextual Use of Genres

Individuals often fulfil multiple roles throughout their day, requiring them to switch between genres based on context. For example, a person may act as a teacher (expository genre when explaining a concept), a friend (narrative genre when sharing a personal story), and a customer (procedural genre when following instructions for a return policy) all in one day.

Genres are characterized by specific features that guide their creation and interpretation. These features can include:

Structure: The organization of content, such as the introduction, body, and conclusion in academic writing.
Language: The choice of vocabulary and syntax, which can vary from formal to informal depending on the genre.
Purpose: The intended outcome of the communication, such as to inform, persuade, or entertain.

A letter, for example, can be written in different genres.

-When we are writing to persuade someone to do something, it would follow the rules of the argumentative genre.

-When we are giving suggestions or advice, it will be placed in the expository genre. When we talk about the pros and cons of a matter, then it is discursive.

-If the letter talks about something that happened recently, it follows the generic rules of narrative.

In summary, the contextual use of genres plays a vital role in shaping communication practices. By analyzing the features and conventions of different genres, we can better understand how to effectively convey their messages in various contexts.

7.2.4 Importance of Genre Analysis

Understanding genre is crucial for effective communication. It helps individuals recognize the expectations and conventions associated with different forms of discourse, enabling them to adapt their communication style to suit various contexts. For instance, knowing how to write a formal report differs significantly from crafting a personal narrative, and genre analysis provides the tools to navigate these differences successfully.

Figure 7.2.4: Friends Gathering

Image generated by Padlet

7.3 Coherence

7.3.1 What is coherence?

The term “Coherence” comes from the Latin verb co-haerere, which means 'to stick together' (Coherence, n.d.). Coherence is an essential feature that determines the meaningfulness of a text or spoken discourse. As mentioned by Yule (2006), coherence is “not something that exists in words or structure, but how people make sense of what they read or hear” (as cited in Wang, 2011). A coherent discourse enables readers or listeners to easily grasp the intended message, as the ideas flow logically from one point to the next. Coherence is about the unity of the ideas. For example, “Jane took a train from London to Paris. She had to attend a conference”. There is a relation between the two sentences, making the discourse coherent (the second sentence provides an explanation for the first).

Figure 7.3.2.1: A Chocolate Strawberry cake recipe

(Retrieved from https://onedishkitchen.com/ultimate-cooking-for-one-book-order-page/)

7.3.2 Achieving Coherence

There are 6 key concepts that help to assess whether a text has coherence (Wang, 2011).

7.3.2.1 Genre

Genre sets the expectations for the structure and style of discourse. Different genres have different structures that guide the organization of content. For instance, when talking about a recipe, people may immediately have the expectations of a brief overview of the dish, ingredient list, and step-by-step instructions.

Figure 7.3.2.2: Advertisements on Instagram

(Retrieved from https://glorify.com/learn/instagram-ads-sizes-best-practices-2024)

7.3.2.2 Context

Context provides the background against where the discourse is interpreted. For example, advertisements can be found on TV, websites, or social media like Instagram, YouTube, etc.

In another example, this dialogue is commonly seen when ordering food in restaurants.

A: I’d like a beef pho.

B: Would you like anything else?

A: Add some fresh herbs, please.

7.3.2.3 Top-Level Structure

Top-level structure shows how the text is pre-organized in the mind of the writer/speaker. There are four possible structures, including comparison, cause and effect, lists and descriptions, problems and solutions.

a. Comparison

Comparision is a structure for comparing ideas and views, which is commonly seen in argumentative speech or writing, and advertisements. For example, in a Burger King advertisement, they show how much their Whopper is bigger than a Big Mac by trying to fit it in a Big Mac box.

Figure 7.3.2.3a: A Burger King advertisement

(Retrieved from https://www.manypixels.co/blog/marketing-design/best-food-ad-designs)

b. Cause and effect

Cause and effect refers to the causal relationship between two events or things. This structure is often seen in narrative and expository factual text. There are signal words that can help identify the results of an action: If/then, reasons, why, since, because, as a result, this led to, consequently, due to, cause, effect, so ("Cause and effect", 2023).

Figure 7.3.2.3b: A cause and effect article

(Retrieved from https://pin.it/3eyTTja)

c. Lists and descriptions

Lists and descriptions refer to organizing a text by listing out and describing information in an orderly manner. This structure can often be seen in note-taking, expository and informative texts. For example, a recipe will present a list of ingredients needed for preparation.

Figure 7.3.2.3c: List of ingredients in a recipe

(Retrieved from https://www.wipetphotographer.com/the-dog-blog-by-stephanie-lynne-photography/the-best-chocolate-chip-cookies)

d. Problems and solutions

Problems and solutions is a structure that shows different problems and how the problem is solved. This structure can be easily found in non-fictional scientific and social-scientific texts. For instance, in the story Cinderella, the problem is that the stepmother does not allow Cinderella to go to the ball. The solution is that Cinderella gets help from her friends and fairy godmother to go to the ball and meet the prince. This structure ensures that the story progresses logically, with each part building on the previous one to create a unified narrative.

Figure 7.3.2.3d: Pictures of Cinderella story

(Retrieved from https://www.vedantu.com/stories/disney-princess-cinderella)

Figure 7.3.2.4: An argumentation structure

(Retrieved from https://super-ela.com/terms/argumentative-essays/)

7.3.2.4 Organizational Structure

While the top-level structure provides the overall framework, the organizational structure deals with how ideas and information are arranged within that framework. For example, an argumentative essay maintains coherence by presenting claims, supporting evidence and reasons, and counterarguments in a logical order. The organizational structure ensures that the argument is clearly articulated and related to the thesis.

7.3.2.5 Audience

The audience has certain expectations about the organization, structure and content. This knowledge helps the audience to extract meaning from the text. Moreover, understanding the audience is crucial for achieving coherence, as it determines how the discourse should be organized to meet their expectations, knowledge level, and interests. For instance, a technical report for a group of engineers will use specific jargon and detailed explanations, maintaining coherence by assuming a certain level of expertise. In contrast, a public information brochure on the same topic would simplify terms and provide more background information to ensure coherence for a general audience.

Figure 7.3.2.6: Dove Beauty Bar advertisement

(Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcsmCplywSE)

This Dove advertisement shows the slogan “Simply Timeless” and the benefits of the Dove Beauty Bar to persuade consumers to buy it.

7.3.2.6 Purpose

The purpose of discourse shape its content and structure, guiding people to organize information to achieve the intended effect. For example, a persuasive advertisement aims to convince the audience to purchase a product. Its coherence is maintained through a clear and consistent message, using emotional appeals, benefits of the product, and a call to action, all aligned with the goal of persuasion.

In short, coherence is essential for effective communication, ensuring that discourse is logical, meaningful, and easily understood. By considering elements such as genre, context, top-level structure, organizational structure, audience, and purpose, we can improve the coherence of written or spoken discourse. These components work together to produce a smooth flow of ideas, enabling the audience to engage with and fully comprehend the message.

7.4 Cohesion

At the another side of the coin, cohesion is also a fundamental concept in linguistics and discourse analysis, referring to micro level of the text, that is, the word and sentence and how they join or link together. In another word, cohesion is the grammar in sentences. It is essential for constructing effective communication, as it helps readers or listeners to follow the flow of ideas and thread different parts of a text together. Through following paragraphs, we will explore various devices of cohesion, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion.

(Retrieved from https://youtu.be/m9iEzhY-kvo?feature=shared )

During this dialogue, Peach used a lot of personal reference and demonstrative reference to describe who Caroline is and what Caroline's request is, to emphasize hers wealth by showing Caroline's poverty to guests.

7.4.1 Reference

Reference is a cohesive device that involves the use of pronouns or other referential expressions to link back to previously mentioned entities in a text. It can be classified into three main types: personal, demonstrative, and comparative reference.

Personal Reference: This includes pronouns such as "he", "she" , "it" ,"they" , and so on. For example, in the sentence "Jessie loves her cat. She brushes its fur every day." the pronoun "she" refers back to "Jessie", and "it" refers to "her cat", thus creating a connection between the sentences.
Demonstrative Reference: This involves words like "this", "that", "these", and "those", which point to specific entities. For instance, "It's a good thing you weren't at the party yesterday. That was a mess." Here, "that" refers back to "the party", linking the two statements.
Comparative Reference: This includes expressions that compare entities, such as "like," "similar," and "different." An example would be, "Cats are independent. Dogs, on the other hand, are more social." The phrase "on the other hand" serves to contrast the two entities being discussed.

In Chinese writing, writers often use comparative references as well. Here is an example of I and the Temple of Earth,Shi Tie Sheng.

(Retrieved from https://youtu.be/LeOdBRpMJN0?feature=shared )

Example of the use of personal pronouns in the speech of the character Leonard (The Big Bang Theory). In the fragment, we have the use of the subject ‘she’ and the object ‘her’.

7.4.2 Substitution

Substitution is another cohesive device that replaces a word or phrase with another to avoid repetition but still represents the same meaning. It typically involves the use of words like "one", "do" or "so". For example, consider the sentences, "Jade never has a cat, so she really wants a cat." Instead of repeating "a cat," we can substitute it with "one".This substitution not only makes the text more concise but also enhances its readability.

Substitution can also occur with verbs. For instance, in the dialogue, "How long does it take to walk from residence hall to lecture hall?" "15 minutes." Here, instead of words being substituted by another word, the phrase "It takes me … to walk form residence hall to lecture hall." is missed out completely. facilitating a smoother conversation.

(Retrieved from https://youtu.be/lj_aEgebRco?feature=shared)

Through this exaggerated video, besides of being entertained, it is not difficult to find that ellipsis is also reflected in Mandarin speaking environment.

7.4.3 Ellipsis

Ellipsis is a cohesive device that omits parts of a sentence that are understood from the context, thus avoiding unnecessary repetition. For instance, in the sentences "I will go to the party if you go to the party," we can use ellipsis to simplify this to "I will go to the party if you will." The verb phrase "will go to the party" is omitted after "you," as it is clear from the context.

Ellipsis is particularly common in spoken language, where it aids in keeping conversations fluid. For example, if one person says, "I can play the guitar," and another replies, "I can too," the phrase "play the guitar" is omitted, relying on the listener's understanding of the context.

(Retrieved: https://images.app.goo.gl/PsU3nNSA9CcQe9Qo9)

7.4.4 Conjunction

Conjunction is a cohesive device that connects clauses and sentences through conjunctions like "and," "but," "or," "so," and "because." These words help to establish relationships between ideas, whether they are additive, adversative, or causal.

For instance, in the sentences "I wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain," the conjunction "but" indicates a contrast between the speaker's desire and the reality of the situation. Similarly, in "She was tired, so she went to bed early," the conjunction "so" shows a cause-and-effect relationship.

Conjunctions can also serve to create lists or sequences, as in "I need to buy eggs, milk, and bread." Here, "and" connects the items, providing clarity and organization.

7.4.5.Lexical Cohesion

Lexical cohesion refers to the use of related words and phrases to create connections within a text. This can occur through synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, and collocations.

1.Synonyms

Using different words with similar meanings can enhance cohesion. For instance, in a text discussing climate change, terms like "global warming," "greenhouse effect," and "climate crisis" can create lexical cohesion by relating back to the same overarching topic.

2. Antonyms

The use of opposites can also create cohesion, as in the phrases "dry" and "wet" which can help to establish contrasts within the text.

3. Hyponyms

This involves using more specific terms under a general category, such as "rose," "tulip," and "daisy" as hyponyms of "flower." The repetition of the general term alongside its specific examples creates a cohesive framework.

4. Collocations

These are words that frequently occur together, such as "make a decision" or "need to go" The familiarity of these phrases contributes to the overall coherence of the text.

Image above are generated by Padlet.

7.4.6 Conclusion

Cohesion is an essential aspect of effective communication, enabling texts to convey meaning clearly and logically. By employing various cohesive devices such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion, writers and speakers can create connections within their discourse, Promoting understanding and participation. Understanding these devices not only aids in the analysis of texts but also enhances one's ability to produce coherent and cohesive language in both written and spoken forms. As a critical element of discourse, cohesion plays a vital character in the way we communicate and comprehend the world around us.

Coherence and Cohesion

Coherence and cohesion are integral to creating clear and effective discourse. Though they share the same morpheme “cohere”, they are different (Wang & Guo, 2014b). Coherence refers to the global unity of a text, while cohesion is deals with the linguistic elements that connect ideas at the sentence level. It is possible to create a text that achieves coherence without cohesion. For example, the following dialogue is coherent to most people, even though there are no apparent links between its parts:

A: Someone's at the door.

B: I'm cooking dinner.

A: Alright.

We can easily imagine a context in which it would make sense. Moreover, a text can be cohesive with well-linked sentences but lacks coherence. For instance:

“Sarah loves dancing. She was born in Korea.”

These sentences have cohesion (“she” refers to “Sarah”), but have no coherence at all, as there is no link between being Korean and loving dancing.

References

Asher, R. E. (Ed.). (2006). Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (2nd ed.). Elsevier. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780080448541/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics#book-description

Cause and effect text structure: how to use it?. (2023). Capitalize My Title. Retrieved from https://capitalizemytitle.com/cause-and-effect-text-structure-how-to-use-it/

Coherence. (n.d.). Academic Writing in English. Retrieved from https://www.awelu.lu.se/language/coherence/

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=shX_EV1r3-0C&printsec=frontcover&hl=zh- TW&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Wang, L. (2011). Introduction to language studies. Singapore: Pearson Custom Publishing.

Wang, Y., & Guo, M. (2014b). A short analysis of discourse coherence. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.2.460-465

Comprehension questions (Chapter 7)

Q1:

Which type of speech act is primarily concerned with making statements or assertions about the world?

A. Directives

B. Expressives

C. Assertives

D. Commissives

(Key: C)

Q2:

In discourse analysis, which of the following factors is most crucial for understanding the meaning of a speech act?

A. The grammatical structure of the sentence

B. The speaker’s tone of voice

C. The context in which the speech act occurs

D. The length of the utterance

(Key: C)

Q3:

Which of the following is the genre of a recipe?

A. Procedural

B. Expository

C. Observation

D. Narrative

(Key: A)

Q4:

Which of the following best describes the primary purpose of genre analysis in communication?

A. To identify the grammatical errors in a text.
B. To analyze the historical context of a text.
C. To understand how different texts function within specific contexts and how their features shape communication.
D. To translate texts from one language to another.

(Key: C)

Q5:

Which of the following is NOT a top-level structure?

A. Cause and effect

B. Expository

C. Comparison

D. Lists and descriptions

(Key: B)

Q6:

What is a key feature of organizational structure?

A. It determines the style and tone of the text.

B. It dictates the overall length of the text.

C. It deals with the organization of a text.

D. It establishes the primary purpose and audience of the text.

(Key: C)

Q7:

Which type of top-level structure is often used in argumentative speeches?

A. Comparisons

B. Cause and effect

C. Lists and descriptions

D. Expository

(Key: A)

Q8:

"Iris loves movies. She watches it every day". For this sentence, what kind of reference is used?

A. Personal Reference

B. Demonstrative Reference

C. Comparative Reference

(Key : A)

Q9:

"I like to read books, but I don't have time". The conjunction "But" is used to?

A. Adds in information

B. Contrasts information

C. Indicate result or consequence

(Key : B)

Q10: Which one is not lexical cohesion?

A. Synonyms

B. Antonyms

C. Ellipsis

D. Collocations

(Key: C)

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