Introduction

As we have seen in the previous chapters, a language is a large system made up of many, smaller systems, with a lot of important linguistic subsystems having been introduced and dissected. However, in order to fully grasp the nature of English, we must take a look at it from a global perspective: to understand how English spread across the world, the different models of Englishes, the differences between varieties of English, the analysis of Hong Kong’s English as an example, and the model of English that should be adapted for teaching in classrooms. All of these will be introduced in the following sections, in order to explain the newest concept in this book, World Englishes.

9.1 The Spread of English

English is the most spoken and widespread language in the world, with 88 countries where English is an official language. Even recently in the 20th century, independent and newly-independent states such as India, Malaysia and Singapore are taking up English as an official or semi-official language (Crystal, 2003). However, how did this language become so popular? 

9.1.1 How English Spread Across the World

There have been 2 major reasons for the spread of English across the world since the 15th century, namely colonization and emigration. 

9.1.1.2 Emigration

As more citizens and religious missionaries from English-speaking countries emigrated from their homes, they carried their mother tongue with them. Naturally, this meant that English had spread even further around. What’s more, missionaries would establish schools in the regions they travelled to, where the language of instruction was English. In the pursuit of passing on their beliefs, they also passed on their language.

9.1.2 The Factors Contributing to English as a World Language

The phenomenon of English as a world language can be accounted for by seven factors (Crystal, 2003): 

9.1.2.1 Historical Reasons

The legacy of British and American imperialism has made sure that English remains this world’s lingua franca. We’ve already talked about how the British spread English far and wide after the Industrial Revolution, but America had colonies also, in places like Puerto Rico and the Philippines, and spread English in similar ways.

9.1.2.2 Internal Political Reasons

Since there tends to be a large variety of ethnic groups within a country, English may serve as a lingua franca. Furthermore, by having so many different ethnic groups use the same language, a sense of bonds and national unity may be cultivated within the citizens, bringing the speakers of the language closer together and fostering a strong pride in their national identity.

9.1.2.3 External Economic Reasons

The American economy saw a massive boom after World War II, making sure that its influence would increase exponentially. If one wanted to do business with the US, they would have to know English. By becoming a major center for trade and finance, America would have many other territories embrace English, in the interest of pursuing profits or securing positions in business or politics (Myatt, 2020).

9.1.2.4 Practical Reasons
English is the language of international air traffic control. Language proficiency tests are required before receiving a license. It is also very commonly used at international business and academic conferences, as the medium of communication with non-native speakers present. Those working in the tourism industry may also have it in their best interests to learn English, as it means that it will be easier to communicate with tourists, thus improving business.

9.1.2.5 Intellectual Reasons
The vast majority of scientific, technological, and academic information in the world is expressed through English, whether it be papers, videos or something similar. With so much research and valuable knowledge being in this language, it’s essential for some academics and scholars to have a good grasp of English. Moreover, over 80% of information that exists digitally is in English, giving even more incentive for people to learn the language.

9.1.2.6 Entertainment Reasons
In a lot of popular culture, English is the main language, influencing entertainment created from around the world. Despite being from Sweden, pop group ABBA still chooses to perform in English (Myatt, 2020). Many popular book series and television shows will be translated into English, or dubbed over with an English voice cast. Despite the setting of the story, media may be made with English in mind. An example is Ghost of Tsushima by Sucker Punch Productions, which takes place in 1274 Japan, yet was still made in English first, with a Japanese dub being made afterwards.

9.1.2.7 Some Wrong Reasons

Unfortunately, some people believe that English is objectively superior: that it is a more logical or beautiful language than others, with easier pronunciation and simpler grammar. This point of view is rather naive, however, and should not be taken seriously. It is easy to forget that English is only one of many world languages, making it inappropriate to express triumphalism due to the language. However, as Smith (1981, p.1) points out, “it is commonly accepted that the English language is vastly more used nowadays than it was in the past, and that the expansion of its use continues apace”.

To conclude, there are many reasons why English managed to spread across the world at such a rate, and even more reasons why it's maintained the title of a world language: simply too many people around the world benefit from knowing the language. But the how and why is only part of the topic: now, let's take a look at the specific models of English used around the world today.

9.2 Different English Speakers

According to what we have learnt in 9.1, English has become a widespread language to worldwide citizens. Nowadays, more than 1.5 billion people speak English (first or second language). Using English has become a true global phenomenon (Malesińska, 2023). Distinct English-speaking individuals are sorted by models of Englishes.

9.2.1.1 Inner Circle

The Inner Circle comprises countries in which English is spoken as a native and primary language (Al-Mutairi, 2019). Their cultural heritage is directly based on and correlated to English. 

9.2.1.1.1 Examples

9.2.1.2 Outer Circle

The Outer Circle includes countries with historical ties to British colonialism, as well as those where English is frequently used in social and governmental contexts. The majority of countries in this category are past colonies of the British Empire (Al-Mutairi, 2019). They are good second-language users of English.

9.2.1.2.1 Examples

9.2.1.3 Expanding Circle

The Expanding Circle, the third circle, includes countries introducing English as a foreign language in colleges, primarily for communication with people in the Inner and Outer Circles (Al-Mutairi, 2019). Citizens in this circle have their own traditions. They use English to connect with people in other circles to do things such as conducting business. This circle is a significant reason English is a global and international language.

9.2.1.3.1 Examples

9.2.2 Another Classification of Varieties of English 

Another categorization was suggested to classify how human beings approach English besides the three concentric circles, which is commonly applied in the language education field. The classification includes: English as a native language (ENL), English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL).

9.2.2.1 English as a Native Language (ENL)

It refers to the form of English spoken by individuals who learned it as their first language or mother tongue (Nordquist, 2024). This responds to the inner circle mentioned previously. 

9.2.2.2 English as a Non-Native Language

9.2.2.2.1 ESL

This is also called Additional Language. It describes how non-native speakers use English in an English-speaking context. Such environments may include countries where English is the primary language (e.g. Australia) or those where English plays a significant role (e.g. India) (Nordquist, 2024). It loosely responds to the outer circle discussed above.

9.2.2.2.2 EFL

It is similar to ESL. It indicates that non-native speakers use and study English in areas where it is not the predominant language (Nordquist, 2024). People in these places learn everything about English in school. In daily life, they use their own language to communicate. It roughly corresponds with the expanding circle.

9.2.2.3 Uncertainty 

Nowadays, the boundary between ESL and EFL is increasingly blurred. In international metropolises such as Hong Kong and Shanghai, it is challenging to determine whether residents use English as a foreign language or as a second language. People have divergent perspectives on categorizing English, leading to divisions in how they view it. Consequently, society struggles to classify the type of English being used.

9.2.3 Education and Models of English

9.2.4.1 ENL

9.2.4.1.1 ENL and Education

In academies located in nations like the USA and Australia, tutors and students all use English as their first language. When students from Eastern countries study abroad, they may initially confront language barrier and culture shock. Yet, over time, they often make significant progress in English proficiency. Studying abroad can be the most effective way to improve English language skills and immerse oneself in Western culture.

9.2.4.1.2 Misunderstandings Caused

Some believe that English learners should imitate native speakers to learn English, viewing them as ideal language models. However, native speakers and proficient users often differ in grammar, sentence structure and so on. Native speakers vary in language competence and cannot avoid making mistakes. Conversely, expert users are aware of language rules and are careful about their usage to express refined language (Dabbagh, 2021). Thus, while British and American speakers may be influential, they are not the absolute models for those aiming to master English.

9.2.4.2 ESL and Education

International schools in Eastern regions, such as Hong Kong and Singapore, employ teachers from English-speaking countries. Students from local and foreign areas receive the same education in an English environment, fostering proficiency in English alongside their native languages. Similarly, schools are set up for immigrants specially in the USA and UK to help individuals improve their English skills with support from native speakers to facilitate quicker integration into society.

9.2.4 Conclusion

The population of English speakers has been continuously swelling in the era. It has become a convenient instrument for global citizens to undergo cultural exchange and display various formats of cooperation between countries and regions. As a result, English has evolved into multiple forms such as accents, which will be further explored in 9.3.

9.3 British English VS. American English

British English and American English represent two well-known varieties of the English language, with notable differences in pronunciation, spelling and grammar. 

9.3.1.1 Regional Variations of English in Britain and America

Before exploring the differences between British English (BrE) and American English (AmE), it is important to comprehend that both have different accents, and within these countries, smaller regions have different dialects. They evolved in different socio-cultural environments, leading to variations in Britain and America.

In England, there are seven major dialect areas, the North, the Northwest, the county of Lincolnshire, East Anglia, the Midlands, the extreme Southeast, and the Southwest (Ihalainen, 1994). Whereas in America, there is Northern American English, Southern American English, African American Vernacular English, and other variations (Wikipedia: American English, n.d.).

9.3.1.2 Standard Varieties of British and American English

Both countries insist on having a standard variety of English. In Britain, this is known as Standard British English or Received Pronunciation (RP) (Crystal, 2003), while in America, it is called General American (GA) (Wikipedia, 2019). These standards do not reflect the speech of most people in these countries because although these varieties are renowned, not many speak them.

9.3.4.1 Tense Usage 

BrE often employs the present perfect tense to discuss recent past events, such as by asking “Have you ever been to Washington?”, while AmE uses the simple past: “Did you ever go to Washington?”. 

9.3.5.1 Classification of the lexical differences between American and British English

The majority of lexical differences can be found in daily life, specifically, in conversations and oral aspects. When handling speakers who have other varieties of English, it is misinterpreted that the pronunciation is the only difference. But speakers should be aware of false cognates (Scotto et al., n.d.). Cognates are words in English that sound similar to words in other languages and also have similar meanings (Teaching English, 2024). Examples of cognates include the Spanish word “pausa” which has the same meaning to the English word “pause”, and the Italian word “attenzione” which also defines the English word “attention”. One instance of false cognates within British and American English is the term “boot” which means the trunk of a car, but in AmE is defined as a type of shoe. Another example is the term “chips” which in BrE refers to potato slices (also known as french fries in AmE), however “chips” in AmE is defined as potato crisps.

9.4.1.3 Debates

Some scholars argue that HKE should be viewed as an ‘inter-language’, claiming that characterizing HKE as a new English variety is inappropriate since English is seldom used in communications outside of work and school (Li, 2000). 

As cited in Wang (2011), Kirkpatrick and Xu (2002) point out that a variety meeting all five of Butler’s criteria could be considered an established variety, while a variety meeting the first three or four criteria should be regarded as a developing variety. Having met the first four criteria, HKE should then be considered a developing variety.

9.4.2.2 Consonants 

Hung's (2000) analysis shows that HKE speakers share six distinctive stops and two distinctive affricates, and the most important feature of HKE is the absence of a voiced/voiceless contrast. 

9.4.3 Is Chinglish ‘Bad English’?

In the eyes of ambitious parents and educators, HKE is considered sub-par due to its perceived flaws. Back in the late 1980s, prestigious schools prided themselves on teaching all subjects except for Chinese studies in English, making most parents believe that proficiency in English could give their children better chances in life. (Bolton, 2000)

Li (2000) points out that the ‘standard English’ of British or American English used in teaching materials is considered correct English. In speech, Hongkongers are reluctant to speak in English during social interactions since it is considered unnatural (except for code-mixing). Hence, English as a communication medium is seldom used for effective and non-work-related purposes. Therefore, Hong Kong’s language-learning environment is not conducive to developing competence in English.

The preference for ‘standard English’ has much to do with sociolinguistics and education. In 9.5, how English is taught in the classroom and models of English will be discussed.

9.5 Model of English in Classrooms

The choice of the proper English models in classrooms is one of the most significant issues in modern education, as the trends in international communication change.

9.5.2. Traditional vs Modern Teaching Model

The progression of the teaching of English has shifted the paradigm of how language is learned and how it can best be taught. As presented by Moughamian et al. (2009), the traditional models of instruction used to teach are focused on grammar-translation, direct instruction, and memorization. These approaches prioritized precision at the cost of naturalness and many of them were teacher dominated. On the other hand, the contemporary teaching strategies are more liberal and incorporate more engaging approaches. These are communicative language teaching, task-based teaching, and content and language integrated teaching. The key distinction lies in how these approaches conceptualize language learning: whereas earlier models of language defined it as an object that has to be learned and followed, the current approaches see it as a means of interaction and social practice. Current models also acknowledge the use of real objects, situations, and meaningful activity. The research shows that such approaches in general are more effective in motivating students, helping them retain language and developing their practical skills, especially in the area of communicative competence and intercultural sensitivity.

9.5.4. Technology Integration & Innovation

Technological tools have become an essential part of the ELT teaching strategies in today’s classroom. Ayçiçek and Yanpar Yelken (2018) prove that such innovative methods as the flipped classroom model increase students’ interest and achievement. Technology allows the teacher to integrate technology in the classroom to support face-to-face instruction and offer students multiple means through which they can learn a language. Mobile applications for language learning, virtual reality and adaptive learning systems provide individualized approach to learning that fits the needs of each learner. These technologies take learning outside the classroom by providing students with access to real English materials through multimedia, collaboration tools, and virtual exchange projects. The use of learning management systems helps in the provision of formative and summative assessments, which help the teachers to monitor the learners’ progress and make the necessary changes to teaching. The research shows that technology integrated language learning environments are especially effective in the improvement of students’ listening and speaking skills due to the variety of accents and communication situations, as well as the cultivation of digital competencies necessary for communication in the contemporary interconnected world.

9.5.5. Synthesis & Future Directions

The future of teaching English should involve the combination of the traditional method of teaching and the modern methods of teaching. English (2003) has stated that the language instruction should be effective in translating theories into practice, and at the same time should be able to address the emerging needs of education. This synthesis indicates that it is possible to integrate the best approaches from all the teaching methodologies, while at the same time being aware of the cultural and learning needs of the learners in the region. Future development should therefore aim at establishing a learning environment that can support the learning styles and cultural diversities of students. The use of artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies in the context of learning has the potential to transform the delivery of personalized learning experiences and also manage to retain the human factor in language learning. Schools need to get ready by providing for teacher development, IT, and the creation of learning resources that embrace the use of multiple modalities. The end product, however, is to produce learners who are capable of communicating effectively in the global society in the ever diversifying linguistic environment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the sections under chapter 9 elaborate on the significant evolution and global importance of the English Language, underlining its expansions from historical colonization to its current status as one of the most prominent languages in the world, spanning various cultures. This analysis of world Englishes has discussed the different models of English utilization such as the Inner, Outer and Expanding Circles, and how it categorizes speakers into native, second and foreign language users. Moreover, the differences between the British and American English also display the diversity within the linguistic features of both these variations and how they are shaped by their cultural and social contexts. The exploration of Hong Kong English also highlights significant points about the recognition of new varieties of English, exhibiting how the English language is dynamic and flexible in all parts of the world, and that all varieties should be treated equally and taken into account. Lastly, the examination of the use of English in classrooms emphasizes the significance of an integration between local languages, culture and the English language, showing how many schools have shifted from traditional teaching methods that used native speaker standards to more technology enhanced approaches that encourage a more communicative environment consisting of intercultural awareness, making the model of English used in a classroom much more context and needs dependent.

Reference

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Comprehension questions (Chapter 9)

Please answer the following 10 multiple-choice questions.

1. Which of the following is NOT one of the ways the British Empire spread English?

A. Emigration

B. Education
C. Book circulation
D. Trading                                                                                                                                                                                                         (Key: C)

2. What might be a reason for a non-local scholar to learn English?

A. To feel a stronger sense of national identity
B. Because 80% of digitally stored information is in English
C. In order to teach the language to fellow citizens
D. To better understand people at international conferences                                                                                                               (Key: B)

3. Which circle does Austria belong to?

A. Inner circle

B. Outer circle

C. Expanding circle

D. none of the above                                                                                                                                                                                     (Key: D)

4. The three circles(Inner circle, outer circle, expanding circle) are isolated these days.

A. True

B. False                                                                                                                                                                                                             (Key: B)

5. What is the standard variety of English primarily spoken by newscasters in America?

A. Received Pronunciation (RP)

B. General American (GA)

C. Standard British English

D. Southern American English                                                                                                                                                                      (Key: B)

6.  In British English, how are collective nouns treated in relation to verb forms?

A. They always take singular verb forms.

B. They can take singular or plural verb forms depending on the context.

C. They are always treated as plural.

D. They have no grammatical significance.                                                                                                                                                (Key: B)

7. According to Butler’s criteria for an English variety, which criterion does Hong Kong English NOT fit into?

A. Standard and recognizable pronunciation

B. Existence of reference works

C. Literature written in this variety without apology

D. Words that express key features of the environment                                                                                                                         (Key: B)

8. What features are present in Hong Kong English?

l.   Dropping the final consonants

ll.  Specific vowels not distinguished 

lll. Adding Cantonese sentence-final particles

lV. Direct translation and adoption from Chinese

A. I, II

B. II, III

C. III, IV

D. All of the above                                                                                                                                                                                          (Key: D)

9. What is a key argument presented by Mahboob and Lin (2016) regarding English language teaching?

A. Effective communication relies on emphasizing native speaker models.

B. Integrating local language and culture can enhance learning outcomes and student engagement.  

C. Grammar-translation methods are the most effective teaching strategies.  

D. Language learning should focus solely on memorization and precision.                                                                                        (Key: B)

10. Which of the following teaching strategies is NOT mentioned as a modern approach to teaching English?

A. Task-based teaching  

B. Direct instruction  

C. Communicative language teaching  

D. Content and language integrated learning                                                                                                                                           (Key: B)