Discourse analysis involves examining how language is used in context, focusing on the ways in which social power, identity, and meaning are constructed through communication. It can include various methods such as analyzing spoken conversations, written texts, and even non-verbal cues. Researchers may investigate the structure of dialogues, the use of language in social institutions, or how language shapes and reflects social realities. 

For decades,schlors of discourse analysis have studies how the use of nominations, combined with a reliance on the passive voice, can slyly conceal ideological aims and the parties that endoorse them.

--Lauren MIchele Jackson,The New Yorker, 17 Aug.

It is mainly divided into three parts: Discourse markers, Conversational analysis and Critical discourse analysis.

7.1.2.1Discourse Markers: These are words or phrases used in conversation to manage the flow of discourse. Examples include "well," "you know," "like," and "so." They can signal a shift in topic, indicate agreement or disagreement, or help organize thoughts.

7.1.2.2Conversational Analysis: This is a method used to study the structure and organization of talk in interaction. It focuses on how people create meaning through conversation, examining aspects such as turn-taking, pauses, and the use of language in social contexts.

7.1.2.3Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): This approach examines the relationship between language, power, and social inequality. CDA looks at how discourse shapes and is shaped by social structures, ideologies, and power dynamics, often with a focus on issues like racism, sexism, and classism.

Van Dijk, T. A. (1997). Discourse as Structure and Process. Sage.

A foundational text that discusses the cognitive and social dimensions of discourse

7.1.3 Important of Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is indeed siginificant across several disciplines. Let’s have a look of different vies of the influence through the detailed imformation.

Understanding discourse is crucial for various fields, including linguistics, sociology, communication studies, and anthropology. It enables researchers to explore how language shapes social identities, power structures, and cultural norms.

It plays an important role to english reading.Through discourse analysis, the stiucture and the grammar of the whole article will be clearer and more accurate, which makes readers to get close to the topic and beeter know what does it mean.

e.g.How to develop students’ ability of discourse analysis in teaching of English reading

The Application od Discourse Analysis to Teaching of College English Extensive Reading

An Analysis of DIscourse in the English Listening and Speaking Class.

These examples shows that the importance of the study of discourse analysis.

https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=discourse%2Banalysis&step_word=&hs=0&pn=40&spn=0&di=7

7.2.1.2 Extralinguistic Context 

Extralinguistic context, on the other hand, encompasses the social, cultural, and situational factors that influence how language is used and understood. It includes the social relationships between the participants in the discourse, their cultural backgrounds, the norms and conventions of the society they belong to, and the specific situation in which the discourse occurs. 

7.2.1.2.1 Social Context

Social context refers to the complex web of relationships, structures, and cultural dynamics that surround a particular situation or event. Language is a social phenomenon, and it is closely tied up with the social structure and value system of society.Therefore, language cannot avoid being influenced by all these factors like social role, social status, sex and age, etc. (Song,2010) As the image in Figure7.5shows that social context includes the social structures, relationships, and dynamics within a community or society, such as class, gender, race, and social norms. Social context influences how individuals interact, perceive each other, and respond to events and shapes societal expectations and behaviors. For instance, it plays a crucial role in shaping collective behaviors during events, such as protests, celebrations, or crises, as individuals often respond in ways that conform to  the norms and values of their social groups. Moreover, social context is not static, the individual respond to events or situations can vary greatly depending on their social positioning and the prevailing cultural attitudes of the time. 

7.2.1.2.3 Situational Context

Situational context is the specific circumstances in which the discourse takes place. (Song,2010) This includes the physical setting, the purpose of the interaction, and the roles of the participants. It dictates not only the choice of words but also the levels of politeness, assertiveness, and emotional expression. The language used in a formal presentation will differ from that used in a casual chat due to the different situational demands and expectations. For example, a casual conversation between friends at a coffee shop will differ significantly in tone, vocabulary, and formality from a business meeting or a courtroom proceeding.

7.2.2 Intertextuality

Intertextuality is a concept in literary theory that refers to the relationships between texts and the ways in which they reference, influence, and interact with one another, It is considered as a multidimensional connection of texts, which is created with the help of various references to previously created texts. (Tolibovna,2022) Either through direct quotations or indirect quotations (Shaw& Pecorari,2013) to thereby shaping meaning and interpretation. It highlights that no text exists in isolation; rather, each work is part of a larger web of cultural and literary discourse, informed by prior texts, genres, and cultural references.

7.2.2.1The Role of Direct Quotation in Intertextuality

Direct quotation in intertextuality refers to the exact reproduction of phrases or segments from one text within another text. This form of quoting maintains the original wording and is typically highlighted using quotation marks or other markers to indicate that these words originate from an external source. In "The Waste Land," T.S. Eliot draws upon various literary works, including Dante's "Divine Comedy," stating, "I had not thought death had undone so many" (Brook,2013). This direct quotation exemplifies how Eliot uses intertextuality to evoke a shared cultural memory, enriching his own poem with layers of meaning.

7.2.2.2 Connections and Resonances Between Texts

Intertextuality encompasses not only direct quotations but also implicit cultural references, thematic borrowings, and stylistic influences. As the Image in Figure7.7shows it highlighting the complex web of connections that exist between texts. For instance, James Joyce's "Ulysses" heavily references and reinterprets Homer's "Odyssey." （McMurray, 2024)By reimagining the ancient epic within a modern context. This shows that Joyce not only imbues modern existence with new meanings but also creates layers of cultural resonance for readers who are familiar with both texts. This interplay allows for a richer understanding of the characters and situations within "Ulysses," as they echo and reinterpret the journeys and struggles of Odysseus.

Figure 7.7 The combination of texts

(Image generate fromhttps://philpot.education/mod/page/view.php?id=89)

7.2.2.3 The Function of Intertextuality

Intertextuality highlights the idea that texts are not standalone creations; instead, they emerge from a broader cultural context. As the Image shows in Figure7.8 Intertextuality fosters a dialogue between texts, inviting readers to engage critically with the relationships between them and to consider the broader cultural and historical contexts in which they exist. (Ott & Walter, 2000). By uncovering the connections between texts, we can gain deeper insights into individual works while also understanding broader cultural and societal dynamics. Contemporary writers often draw upon classic works to challenge, reinterpret, or recontextualize them considering modern societal issues. This interplay not only enriches the meaning of the original texts but also encourages readers to reflect critically on current cultural narratives and their origins. Through intertextuality, literature becomes a dynamic conversation across time, allowing us to see how past and present influence one another.

Figure7.8Forming a dialogue between authors in distant time and space

(Image generate from https://literariness.org/2016/03/22/julia-kristeva-intertextuality/)

7.2.3 Power and Ideology

7.2.3.1 Introduction

Discourse analysis is a multifaceted critical approach that examines how language reflects and perpetuates power dynamics and ideological beliefs. Language can be a tool for both oppression and resistance. (Wong, 2015) Power and Ideology in discourse analysis shows how language functions as a site of struggle, negotiation, and change, illuminating the complex interplay between communication, identity, and social structures. At its core, discourse analysis posits that language transcends mere communication; it is a powerful tool that reflects societal structures and influences the relationships between individuals and groups. 

7.2.3.2 Language as an Instrument of Oppression

One significant aspect of discourse analysis is its exploration of how language can function as an instrument of oppression. From a personal perspective, discriminatory language can cause physical attacks on others based on race, gender, social status, and other factors, leading to psychological oppression. From social perspective, as the Image shows in Figure7.9 that language can be manipulated to shape narratives and influence how the public perceives issues. (Zurriyati, Rahman & Alaqad,2023) for example, employing euphemisms in political communication can mask uncomfortable truths and legalized repressive measures. This will further lead to public distrust of the government.

Figure 7.9The concealment of true facts by language will further affect public perception

(Image generate from https://www.naacpldf.org/white-supremacy-what-it-means-to-be-american/)

7.2.3.3 Language as a Tool for Resistance and Empowerment

On the other hand, Language, as a tool of communication and expression, is not only a bridge for people to communicate with each other, but also an important weapon for individuals and groups to resist oppression and fight for rights. Language is a guide to social reality, it powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes. (Kramsch,2004). As the image shows in Figure7.10, throughout the course of history, many social movements and political changes have relied on the power of language. Through poetry, speeches and literary works marginalized groups can speak out, reveal injustice, build resonance, and unite to fight against inequality. Besides, in terms of language usage methods, through the strategic use of language like employing rhetorical devices,such as metaphor can convey deep emotional experiences without directly expressing emotions, making expression more subtle and powerful. This process enables individuals to advocate for transformative change while expressing implicitly.

Figure 7.10 The power of language

(Image generate from https://www.inkshotsofficial.com/post/the-politics-of-language-a-comparative-analysis-of-language-control-in-1984-and-brave-new-world)

7.2.3.4 The Dual Nature of Language

Ultimately, discourse analysis highlights the dual nature of language as both a tool of control and a means of liberation. By examining the complexities of language use, we can uncover how power is constructed, providing vital insights into the broader social dynamic. Language serves as a bridge rather than a barrier. This understanding is crucial for fostering a more equitable society, where diverse voices are recognized and valued. Through a commitment to inclusive discourse practices, we can work towards breaking down oppressive structures and promoting social justice.

7.3 COHERENCE: ANALYSING TEXTS AT THE MACRO LEVEL 

7.3.1 The Importance of Genre 

7.3.1.1The Influence of Genre on Coherence 

Genres play a pivotal role in shaping the coherence of texts by establishing specific conventions that guide reader expectations. Factual texts, such as news articles and academic papers, prioritize clarity and objectivity, focusing on the effective dissemination of information. In contrast, expressive genres like poetry and narratives emphasize emotional engagement and artistic expression, allowing for a more subjective interpretation of content.

Each genre has its characteristic structures that facilitate reader understanding. For instance, narratives often unfold in a chronological sequence, helping readers follow the storyline easily. On the other hand, expository texts are frequently organized around key themes or concepts, which aids in thematic comprehension. By conforming to these genre-specific structures, texts enhance coherence, making it easier for readers to extract meaning and connect ideas.

Context is a critical factor in achieving coherence in writing. The situational context, which encompasses the physical environment and cultural background, shapes how a text is interpreted. For instance, a speech delivered in a formal academic setting requires a more structured approach to coherence than a casual conversation among friends, where the tone and expectations are more relaxed.

In contrast, a casual conversation among friends allows for a more relaxed tone and less rigid structure, where coherence can be achieved through shared understanding and informal cues (https://www.enago.com/academy/coherence-academic-writing-tips-strategies/).

Additionally, the historical and social context plays a significant role in influencing the meanings of words and phrases. This background can affect how different audiences perceive coherence, as the same text may evoke different interpretations based on the reader's experiences and cultural understanding.

The context in which a text is encountered can also impact its clarity. For example, a research article may appear coherent within the framework of academic discourse, but it might lose its clarity when presented to a lay audience unfamiliar with specialized terminology. By understanding the context, both writers and readers can better navigate the complexities of coherence, ensuring that the intended message is conveyed effectively and resonates with the audience.

7.3.3 Understanding Structures

7.3.3.1 Macro-Level Structures 

Bartlett (2003) identifies several macro-level structures crucial for interpreting texts. These include: 

3.Lists and Descriptions: 

This approach organizes information sequentially, facilitating clarity. Recipes and instructional texts often employ this structure, allowing readers to follow steps or understand components systematically.

4.Problems and Solutions: 

This structure outlines an issue followed by potential solutions, commonly found in non-fiction writing. By framing a problem first, the text can engage readers and encourage them to consider various solutions. 

Understanding the target audience is crucial for achieving coherence. The nature of the relationship between the writer and the audience influences the style, language, and content of the text. Different audiences possess varied levels of knowledge and expectations, which can affect how coherence is constructed.

 For example, an academic article intended for fellow researchers will likely use specialised terms and complex structures, whereas a report aimed at the general public will prioritise accessibility and simplicity. Recognizing the audience allows writers to tailor their content effectively.

Similarly, the purpose of a text—whether to inform, persuade, entertain, or instruct—shapes its coherence. A persuasive piece must present arguments in a logical and compelling manner, while an informative text focuses on clarity and factual accuracy.

7.3.4.3 Achieving Coherence in Academic Writing 

In academic writing, coherence is often achieved through the use of cohesive devices and logical transitions that guide readers through the arguments presented. Writers must consider their audience's familiarity with the subject matter to determine the appropriate level of complexity and detail . https://www.enago.com/academy/coherence-academic-writing-tips-strategies/ By doing so, they can create texts that are not only coherent but also resonate with their intended readers.

7.4 Applications of Discourse Analysis

This chapter explores the various uses of discourse analysis across multiple domains, such as political discourse, education, healthcare, etc. Each subsection features particular case studies and theoretical perspectives, illustrating the adaptability of discourse analysis as a research instrument. This investigation highlights its significance in tackling current social challenges and deepening our comprehension of communication in diverse settings.

7.4.1Political Communication

7.4.1.1Rhetorical Strategies

figure4.3 Prof Jaime Toney gave a TED talk on climate change issues(Images downloaded from （https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cy0JZmascVw）

Definition of Ethos

 Ethos is an argument that appeals to the audience by

emphasizing the speaker's credibility and authority.

(Ethos - Definition and Examples | LitCharts, 2018, January)

For instance, a professor of Environmental and Climate Science at the University of Glasgow delivers a TED talk about the urgency of addressing climate change. The professor’s qualifications and expertise lend authority to her argument, increasing the audience's likelihood of accepting her message.

7.4.1.1.2Logos (Logical Appeal)

7.4.1.1.3Pathos (Emotional Appeal)

7.4.1.2Ideological analysis

Ideological analysis is a technique employed to investigate the foundational beliefs, principles, and presuppositions that influence a text, media, or cultural artifact

.(Ideological Analysis - (Media Criticism) - Vocab, Definition, Explanations | Fiveable, n.d.) This method emphasizes the ways in which discourse forms and communicates beliefs, values, and power dynamics. By examining language usage in diverse contexts, scholars can reveal the foundational ideologies that shape public discourse and affect social activity.

 Ideological analysis can be applied to various aspects of everyday life. Here are some illustrative examples:

7.4.1.2.1. Education

7.4.1.2.2. Workplace Culture

7.4.2 Media Representation

7.4.2.1Framing Analysis

7.4.2.2Public Opinion Formation

7.4.2.2.1.Media Influence

Media can prepare audiences to evaluate issues based on certain criteria or considerations. Media serves as a primary source of information, framing issues in particular ways that can shape public perceptions.

7.4.2.2.2Family and Peer Influence

Parents and peers can impact adolescents through two distinct mechanisms—the articulation of societal norms or the demonstration of behaviors.

(“Parental and Peer Influence on Adolescents on JSTOR,” 1980.)

7.4.2.2.4.Cultural Influence

Cultural values and standards have a substantial impact on forming perspectives and viewpoints.

Reference

Andovar. (n.d.). Language solutions. Retrieved November 11, 2024, from https://www.andovar.com

Andovar. (n.d.). Subtitling & captions. Retrieved November 11, 2024, from https://www.andovar.com/subtitling-captions

Bartlett, J. (2003). Macro-level structures in text interpretation.

Brooks, C. (2013). The Waste Land. In North, The Waste Land (pp. 185-210).

Bussey, S. (2023, September 20). Key differences between spoken and written languages and how it affects subtitling. Andovar. https://blog.andovar.com/3-ways-differences-in-spoken-and-written-language-affect-subtitling

Davison, W. P. (2024, October 24). Public opinion | Definition, characteristics, examples, polls, types, importance, & facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-opinion

Enago Academy. (2021, December 2). How coherence in writing facilitates manuscript acceptance. Enago Academy. https://www.enago.com/academy/coherence-academic-writing-tips-strategies/

Enago Academy. (n.d.). Resources for researchers. Retrieved November 11, 2024, from https://www.enago.com/academy/

Enago Academy. (n.d.). Publication support services. Retrieved November 11, 2024, from https://www.enago.com/services/publication-support/

Enago Academy. (n.d.). Understanding the target audience. Retrieved November 11, 2024, from https://www.enago.com/academy/

Enago Academy. (n.d.). The role of purpose in coherence. Retrieved November 11, 2024, from https://www.enago.com/academy/

Ethos - Definition and examples | LitCharts. (n.d.). LitCharts. https://www.litcharts.com/literary-devices-and-terms/ethos

Jurdak, M. (2014). Religion and language as cultural carriers and barriers in mathematics education--revisited. Journal of Humanistic Mathematics, 4(2), 47-57. https://doi.org/10.5642/jhummath.201402.05

Kramsch, C. (2004). Language, thought, and culture. In The handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 235-261).

Navas Brenes, C. A. (2011). Analyzing an oral narrative using discourse analysis tools: Observing how spoken language works. Actualidades Investigativas En Educación, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.15517/aie.v5i1.9119

Ott, B., & Walter, C. (2000). Intertextuality: Interpretive practice and textual strategy. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 17(4), 429-446.

Shaw, P., & Pecorari, D. (2013). Types of intertextuality in Chairman’s statements. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 12(1), 37-64.

Song, L. (2010). The role of context in discourse analysis. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 1(6), 876-879. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.1.6.876-879

Tolibovna, A. K. (2022). Functions of allusion and allusion as a marker of intertextuality and precedence. European Multidisciplinary Journal of Modern Science, 6, 485-487.

Wikipedia contributors. (2024, November 5). Political communication. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_communication#:~:text=Political%20communication%20is%20the%20study,from%20communication%20and%20political%20science

Wong, A. D. (2015). How does oppression work? Language, sexuality, and power: Studies in intersectional sociolinguistics, 19.

Yang, Y., & Hu, R. (2022). The functions of context in discourse analysis. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Culture, 8(5), 218-228.

Zickel, M. G. & E. (2018, January). 6.4 Rhetorical appeals: Logos, pathos, and ethos defined. Pressbooks. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/rhetorical-strategies-building-compelling-arguments/

Comprehension questions (Chapter 7)

Question 1:

What are the three main components of discourse analysis as mentioned in the introduction?

A) Syntax, Phonetics, Morphology
B) Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics
C) Syntax, Grammar, Vocabulary
D) Syntax, Discourse Markers, Context

Correct Answer: B) Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics

Question 2

What is one method researchers can use to reduce subjectivity in discourse analysis?

A) Ignore personal biases
B) Engage in Reflexivity
C) Conduct analysis alone
D) Limit participant involvement

Correct Answer: B) Engage in Reflexivity

Question 3: 

In discourse analysis, what does the term "intertextuality" refer to?  

A) The study of language in different cultures  

B) The relationship between different texts  

C) The grammatical structure of sentences  

D) The psychological impact of language

Answer:B) The relationship between different texts  

Question 4: 

What role does "context" play in discourse analysis?  

A) It is irrelevant to the analysis  

B) It only refers to the physical setting  

C) It shapes the meaning and interpretation of discourse  

D) It is only important in written texts 

Answer: C) It shapes the meaning and interpretation of discourse

Question 5:

Which of the following is a key focus of discourse analysis?

A) The phonetics of spoken language  

B) The structure of individual sentences  

C) The social context of communication  

D) The historical development of language

Answer: C) The social context of communication  

 Question 6:   

 How do genres influence the coherence of texts?

A) By limiting the content that can be included.

B) By establishing specific conventions that shape reader expectations.

C) By ensuring all texts follow the same structure.

D) By focusing solely on emotional expression.

Answer: B) By establishing specific conventions that shape reader expectations.

Question 7:

How can context impact the clarity of a text?

A) It always enhances clarity for all audiences.

B) A research article may lose clarity when presented to a lay audience.

C) Context has no effect on clarity.

D) Clarity is independent of context.

Answer: B) A research article may lose clarity when presented to a lay audience.

Question 8：

What is the primary focus of discourse analysis in political communication?

A) Analyzing the economic impact of political decisions
B) Examining political language in speeches, debates, and policy documents
C) Investigating the personal lives of politicians
D) Assessing public opinion on political issues

Answer: B) Examining political language in speeches, debates, and policy documents

Question 9：

Which rhetorical appeal is concerned with the credibility and authority of the speaker?

A) Pathos
B) Logos
C) Ethos
D) Mythos

Answer: C) Ethos

Question 10：

In the context of ideological analysis, how can curriculum choices in education reflect underlying beliefs?

A) By solely focusing on technological advancements without addressing their societal impacts
B) By promoting a fixed perspective on history
C) By encouraging competitive behaviors among students
D) By limiting student interactions

Answer: A) By solely focusing on technological advancements without addressing their societal impacts