Chapter 02 Nature of Language

The nature of language is a fascinating topic for exploration. There are various sub-topics that can be discussed in this chapter, such as the biological basis of language, language and cognition, the evolution of language, and language and culture. After thorough research, we have decided to arrange the chapter by firstly introducing the source of language. Then, different natural languages in different environments will be discussed. To provide deeper insights, we will further explain the language change in syntax, semantics and pronunciation by deconstructing the structure of language. Moreover, language change in cultural communication and the relationship between language and cognition will be elaborated with multiple arguments. Finally, the nature of language from perspectives of philosophy will be introduced.

2.1 Source of language

The source of language refers to the original impetus or reason that triggered humans to acquire the ability of speech. Since ancient times, humans have been cudgeling their brains to figure out the source of language, whether from theological, historical, biological or functional perspectives. Each of the theories they proposed is quite fascinating, reflecting humans’ fanciful imagination and broad vision.

2.1.1 Myths

Long ago, our ancestors brought up various speculations regarding the source of language. In the following section, we are going to go through several myths elaborated by the ancients.

Figure 1.1: Nüwa forming people from clay

(Image downloaded from https://www.sohu.com/a/504967752_121123792)

Nüwa and Human Language

In Chinese mythology, Nüwa, a goddess with a human face and a serpent’s body, is credited with the creation of humanity and the conferment of the capacity of speech. According to the legend, after forming people from clay (Figure 1.1), she tapped them on the back of the head, making them cry out and thereby acquire the ability to speak. This myth connects the origin of human speech with the creation of humanity itself, portraying language as a fundamental gift from a divine being.

Figure 1.2: Shennong tasting hundreds of herbs

(Image downloaded from https://bluedail.com/blogs/culture/the-earliest-chinese-medicinal-book-shennong-bencao-jing-shen-nongs-taste-of-hundred-herbs-to-save-the-lives-of-the-people)

Shennong(神農) and the naming of plants

The myth of Shennong, the Divine Farmer, reflects a fanciful picture in early human efforts to organize the natural world through language. As the image in Figure 1.2 shows, Shennong is believed to have tasted hundreds of herbs to identify their medicinal properties and named each herb according to its functions and characteristics. His act of naming these plants laid the foundation for an early form of information sharing and contributed to the diversity of language.

Figure 1.3: Adam naming the living creatures (Image downloaded from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_language )

Adam and the Divine gift of naming

In the Bible, after Adam was created by God, all living creatures were brought before him, and they were named whatever Adam call them (Genesis 2:19) (Figure 1.3). Although the source of language is not explicitly stated in the text, it can be inferred from the discourse between God and Adam that Adam’s gift of speaking was innate, a gift granted by God.

In conclusion, to explain human’s acquisition of speech, our ancestors spontaneously attributed this honor to a gift from the Divine, and the phenomena of the naming of objects obviously raised their interest, serving as one of the main plots in the stories.

2.1.2 Hypotheses On Language Emergence

While the myths presented by the ancients leave us with endless reverie, let us now explore some hypotheses on language emergence that are supported, to varying degrees, by scientific evidence.

Figure 1.3: Single origin of early humans

(Image downloaded from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans)

2.1.2.1 Monogenesis vs. Polygenesis

The debate over whether language originated from a single source, known as monogenesis, or developed independently in multiple regions, namely polygenesis, has been long-standing. Next, we are going to talk mainly about Monogenesis.

Proponents of monogenesis argue that early humans would have shared a common language if hominids evolved from the same region, such as Africa.

As the image in Figure 1.4 shows, the evolution of early humans, including homo sapiens, homo neanderthalensis and homo erectus, started from Africa and the nearby regions. Their later immigration contributed to the current distribution of population.

Supporters of Monogenesis further claim that the similarities observed across languages, such as grammatical structures including subjects, objects, and verbs, can be attributed to a common source from which languages have derived. However, regarding this aspect, supporters of polygenesis are convinced that languages can develop similar features independently due to the shared cognitive and social needs of humans much like species in biology can evolve similar traits independently.

2.1.2.2 Gesture or Vocal language First

Figure 1.5: Human vocal tract

(Image downloaded from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Human-vocal-tract-system_fig4_324694260 )

The Gestural Theory

Equipped with uniquely flexible arms and bodies, humans possess the ability to combine body movements with vocal utterances, making expressions clearer and more vivid.

The gestural theory posits that “since the human vocal tract (Figure 1.5) developed rather recently, and hominids have possessed arms and hands for a few million years, it is quite possible human ancestors spontaneously used gesturing to indicate direction and location” (Kelvin, 2005, para.5).

Gordon Hewes, a professor of anthropology at the University of Colorado, contributed further insights into this theory, including his speculation that the unique pinkish skin of human palms, hands, and fingernails may have enhanced the efficiency of visual language (1976).

Figure 1.6: An infant calling “mama”

(Image downloaded from https://www.dreamstime.com/illustration/say-mama-cartoon.html )

Vocal Primacy Hypothesis

During Darwin’s time, the hypothesis that the vocal language evolved directly from vocalizations was brought up. In the book On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin explained language as an innate instinct that evolved over time (1874): “I cannot doubt that language owes its origin to the imitation and modification of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and man’s own instinctive cries, aided by signs and gestures” (p.89-90). It is also suggested by other supporters that infants can naturally produce vocalizations like “mama” without instruction (Figure 1.6), whereas they often fail to convey thoughts through gestures or signs.

In contemporary communication, gesture and vocalization play equally important roles. They intwine as the classic “chicken or egg” problem, attracting scholars to pursue deeper exploration of this intriguing field.

2.1.3 Functions of Language

Many might assume that the functions of the language must be unique and advanced, making humanity the only species capable of making use of language to build a structured and interactive society. But is this assumption reasonable? Let us have a look.

2.1.3.1 Tool of Communication

It is universally acknowledged that language serves as one of the most powerful and versatile tools for human communication. Beyond its basic function of conveying daily information, Sitti Rabiah(2012) stated, “Through language, we can show our perspective, our understanding of the matter, the origin of the nation and our state, our education level, and even our character----language becomes a mirror of us, both as a nation and as a self” (p.6).

2.1.3.2 A Comparative Analysis of the Purposes of Communication in Animals and Humans

Animals are also capable of communication. In the following section, we will illustrate and discuss the similarities and differences in the purposes of communication in animals and humans.

Figure 1.7: The experiment about the monkey calls used by vervet monkeys

(YouTube video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mBwgCk_v09w )

2.1.3.2.1 Purposes: Animal communication

The purposes of animal communication serve a variety of essential functions, typically related to survival, reproduction, and social interaction.

One notable study is the original study concerning the alarm calls of vervet monkeys (Figure 1.4) (Seyfarth et al.,1980). “These monkeys have a set of three distinct alarm calls, used for three different predators (snakes, leopards, and eagles). When a vervet monkey hears one of these calls, he or she takes appropriate action, different for each alarm call” (Johansson, 2001, p.9). The video shown in Figure 1.7 can offer some deeper insights into this experiment.

Additionally, animal communication is typically more immediate and instinctual, focusing on specific signals and responses whose meaning cannot be transformed across space and time.

2.1.3.2.2 Purposes: Human communication

Dating back to primitive society, humans developed the habit of communicating to cope with unknown dangers in the natural environment. As human society evolved, the range of communication extended beyond survival instincts, and people began to use language for multiple purposes, mainly surrounding socialization.

According to Katia Scannavini (2013), “Socialization is a real set of processes that allow individuals, during social interaction, to develop communication and interpersonal skills” (p.173). It can be inferred that the unique structure of human society is one of the primary factors leading to the complexity of human communication. Due to the necessity of social interaction, humans tend to communicate for abstract reasoning, affirming personal status, and most importantly, transmitting culture.

2.1.3.2.3 Comparison

While both animal and human communication serve the purposes of survival and coordination, it is the principal objective of socialization that differs human communication from animal communication. In the process of socialization, humans can communicate to share knowledge, express emotions, convey abstract ideas, and pass down cultural traditions. It is assumed by many that the differences in the purposes of communication in animals and humans may contribute to humanity’s dominance across the globe.

2.2 Different Natural Languages In Different Environments

At present, many natural languages are endangered for various reasons. The issue of language extinction has become a vital and crucial social problem. We believe that studying the topic of different natural languages in different environments (Figure 2.1) can help people better understand how the environment affects natural language, so as to inspire people to solve the language extinction crisis, regarding the planning of this subtopic.  First, an overview of natural language and the environment will be given; then, we will explore how geography affects natural language. From the perspective of phonetic structure change and vocabulary, next, we talked about how the cultural environment influences the pragmatic aspects of natural language; finally, we will discuss about some of the causes of language extinction in different environments. 

Figure1: People from different environment talk to each other

(image generated by Padlet)

2.2.1 An Overview Of The Topic Of Different Natural Languages In Different Environments

Many studies have shown an inseparable relationship between natural language and environment, and cultural and geographical environments significantly impact natural language.

Language is a tool that humans use to communicate and express their thoughts and feelings. Therefore, how people accurately convey meaning to others in different environments has become an interesting and important topic. The natural environment impacts language, and the unique natural environment sometimes hinders language spread. The language will have unique changes under such an environment to facilitate communication. At the same time, in different natural environments, people encounter different natural things, and the words they use in communication are also different. 

The cultural environment will also affect natural language. In different cultural backgrounds, people's communication styles and vocabulary usage vary differently, which will be discussed in detail later.

Environmental change also causes the death of languages, as we will discuss in the following section.

In summary, language and environment are closely intertwined, with language serving as a powerful tool for people to describe, interpret, and advocate for the environments around them. The environments will also influence natural language

2.2.2 The geographical environment influence the natural language

Natural language is deeply influenced by the environment, particularly the geographical environment. Geographical environment includes geographical locations, climatic conditions, and landforms. Millions of people live in different geographical environments worldwide and have developed various and unique languages. There are two aspects of how the geographical environment affects natural language. In the following paragraphs, we will introduce this topic from the two aspects of phonetic structures and vocabulary.

2.2.2.1 Phonetic structures

The acoustic adaptation hypothesis (AAH) states that selection should shape a species' vocalizations to maximize transmission through its habitat (Maddieson, 2015). Some studies have shown similarities in humans' pronunciation. The geographical environments, such as rainforest (Figure 2.2), will also influence languages’ phonetic structures. Next, we will introduce this topic from the two aspects of climate conditions and altitude.

Figure2: Rainforest environment

(image generated by Padlet)

Climatic conditions

Climate affects Phonetic structures through voice quality.

Consonants are less articulated in humid environments, while vowels can travel farther. This is because environmental filtering effects are more likely to degrade higher-frequency sounds. So languages spoken in areas with higher annual precipitation and more excellent tree covery demonstrate a lower reliance on the use of consonants in their phonetic structure, in terms of both the number of consonant contrasts distinguished and the role consonants play in syllable structures. Since it is more likely that environmental effects will be apparent in the case of languages spoken in a smaller area over a more extended period, the language pronunciation data collected here are not included in the widespread ‘colonial’ languages such as English, Spanish, Russian, Mandarin Chinese, and Portuguese with other languages in the set with a speaker population of over five million (Ian & Christophe, 2015).

For example, in tropical regions, such as Hawaiian, the language tends to be "loud," with lower sound frequencies and less use of different consonants. Still, the Georgian language, produced in a cold, dry, mountainous region, is rich in consonants. 

Altitude

Some studies have suggested that ejective phonemes are more likely to occur in language groups at higher altitudes, possibly because of reduced ambient air pressure, which reduces the physiological effort required to compress the air in the pharyngeal cavity, making it easier for ejective（Everett,2013). 

Figure4: coastal environment

(image generated by Padlet)

Figure3:Plain environment

(image generated by Padlet)

2.2.2.2 Vocabulary

In Ecolinguistics, people believe that language does not exist in isolation. It is closely linked to the natural, social and cultural environments. Language is the product of human development to a particular stage. The generation and development of language cannot be separated from human thinking, and human thinking is influenced by the geography in which they live (Zhang, 2021). Areas with rich marine environments, as is shown in Figure 2.3, may have more vocabularies related to aquatic life, navigation and fisheries.

However, agricultural areas, such as the plain environment shown in Figure 2.4, may have more words related to farming, crops, and land. For example, Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea, so English has many vocabularies and sayings about the sea, such as “a smooth sea never made a skillful mariner” and “between the devil and sea”.  

So, the different geographical environments will influence the vocabulary in the other languages.

In summary, the geographic environment will influence the language which originated in this area from the two aspects of phonetic structures and vocabulary.

2.2.3 Different pragmatic of natural languages in different cultural environments

Different cultural environments affect the pragmatics of natural language. Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social interaction and the effects of our choice on others (Crystal, 2010). In theory, we can say whatever we want, but in practice, we follow some established social rules. In different cultures, the social rules we need to follow are different. And these social rules are determined by different cultural environments. Next, we will discuss the influence of the cultural climate on the pragmatics of other natural languages from the following two aspects--politeness and speech acts. 

Figure5: The Japanese are communicating with each other

(image generated by Padlet)

Politeness

The use and frequency of polite expressions in languages of different cultures are very different.  

For example, many European languages do not use their words for request as frequently as English does, and the function and force of the phrase “thank you” may also alter. For example, in response to the question “Would you like some cake?”, a “thank you” in English means 'yes', whereas “merci” in French, which also means “thank you”, means “no”.

So, people have different politeness in different cultural environments.  

Figure 6:the moon is beautiful tonight

(image generated by Padlet)

Speech acts

In other cultural environments that advocate for implication, such as those of East Asian societies such as China and Japan, people tend to use euphemistic ways of language expression, for example, the denial strategy. In English, when someone indicates that they want something from us, we are free to say “no” but not to say just “no”. It is necessary to say something more. But in Japanese culture, the norm seems to avoid saying “no” altogether (Figure 2.5). One would prefer to remain silent rather than utter such words as “no” or “I disagree”. The avoidance of such open and bald negative expressions is rooted in the fear that it might disrupt the harmony and order of the group (Paraskevi-Lukeriya& Larina, 2017). 

And in American culture, people often use "I love you" to express their love more directly. But in a more subtle cultural environment like Japan, people will make use of the beauty of the moon to euphemistically express their feelings (Figure 2.6)

Hence, the cultural environment will profoundly influence the speech acts.

 The cultural environments will profoundly affect the pragmatic expressions in natural languages, and we should follow different communication modes in various cultural environments.

2.2.4 Reasons For The Death Of Some Natural Language In Different Environment

Language death refers to a language no longer having a native speaker. Many natural languages are lost over time because of their failure in adapting to the changing environment. There are three reasons for their loss in different environments, including natural disaster, language suicide as well as globalization and depopulation.

Figure7:the typhoon destroyed the town

(image generated by Padlet)

2.2.4.1 Nature Disaster 

Natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, can destroy entire communities, thus threatening the survival of local languages. Aka-Bo, for example, is only used by tribes in the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The 2004 tsunami, as is shown is Figure 2.7, wreaked havoc in the region, further reducing the number of speakers of the language and eventually leading to its extinction. 

2.2.4.2 Language Death

There is a special kind of language death, which usually occurs when two languages are very similar, with the less prestigious and socially prominent language constantly borrowing sounds from the higher language. In the long run, the less prestigious one may obliterate itself entirely in the process (Altchison, 2013). For example, with the process of British colonization, the languages of some colonized areas were gradually assimilated by the English brought by the colonists, and finally lost their language and became a mixed language--Jamaica Creole. 

Figure8: Globalization

(image generated by Padlet)

2.2.4.3 Globalization and Depopulation 

Globalization (Figure 2.8) has led to increased population mobility. People who move to new places for work, education or other opportunities often give up their native language to adapt to the new environment. For example, some aboriginal languages in Mexico are endangered because the economic and social situation forced native people to leave their communities for the towns or even the USA, where they must speak Spanish (Hlusek, 2023).  

In summary, these are only some reasons for the extinction of languages. Thousands of languages around the world are now in danger of disappearing. The need to protect endangered languages and promote linguistic diversity has become a global issue, and many researchers are working to save languages. 

2.3 Language Change in Syntax, Semantics and Pronunciation

Compared with the traditional view “language change is bad”, the organic view is “language change is inevitable and is welcome”(Wang,2011).Therefore, Language change is a natural and ongoing process that affects various aspects of language, including syntax that means sentence structure, semantics that means meaning, and pronunciation that means phonetics. These three parts are the main characteristics of language change, which reflect that the language system becomes more comprehensive and practical in social life.

2.3.1Change of Syntax

2.3.1.1Definition of Syntax

Syntax in language is defined as the structural set of rules that are part of a sentence. It deals with the structure and form of natural languages, like the sequence of physical gestures or spoken English in American Sign Language (Morvay, 2012).

2.3.1.2 Word Order

Languages can experience shifts in their typical word order. Old English had a flexible word order, with the subject, verb, and object being arranged in various orders. Modern English, in contrast, has a fixed word order, with the subject typically preceding the verb and the object following the verb. So, modern English has a fixed SVO structure, with certain additions such as “SVOO, SVOC, SVOA, SVC, SVA” (Burton-Roberts, 2011: 79). It is obviously expressed that the change of syntax becomes more complicated and diversified over time. For instance, in Old English it meant “thrice me deny‐2S”, in modern English it means “You will deny me three times” (Mahmood, Basima Othman; Salih, Rashwan Ramadan,2024). Old English has the nature of flexibility while modern English emphasises the nature of rigidness in word order.

2.3.1.3 Change of Grammatical Structures

Changes in the use of certain grammatical structures can occur. According to Cichosz, old English had a complex grammar system with noun declensions, adjective declensions, and verb conjugations (2021: 168). Modern English, on the other hand, has a much simpler grammar system with only a few noun declensions and verb conjugations (Mahmood, Basima Othman; Salih, Rashwan Ramadan,2024). It can shed light on grammatical changes that gradually evolve along with time.

To sum up, change of syntax is mainly divided into two parts, which are word order and grammatical structures. The formal part compares old English with modern English to demonstrate the difference of word order along with time. Old English has the nature of flexibility while modern English emphasizes the nature of rigidness in word order. The latter both compares old English with modern English to express change of grammartical structures.

2.3.2 Semantic Change

2.3.2.1The Definition of Semantics

Semantics pertains to the meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning. It involves understanding the relationships between signs and their representations, as well as interpreting meanings across various contexts. Semantic change refers to the evolution of word meanings and is influenced by linguistic processes such as broadening, narrowing, amelioration, pejoration, metaphor, and metonymy (Traugott, 2006).

( image is downloaded from Understanding Semantic Change of Words Over Centuries)

2.3.2.2 Definition of Semantic Change

Various words often have a significant leap in meaning,which can be gradual or abrupt.

For instance, originally the word ‘gay’ word is used as an adjective for happiness, cheer- fulness, pleasant etc. Around the 1970s with the homosexuality movements the word is started to be used as a noun with the meaning homosexual man. Over the years the word has been used more and more with the latter meaning and now when it has been used the first meaning that comes to people’s mind is the homosexual man. (Wijaya, D. T., &Yeniterzi, R, 2011）

Similarly, the German word “handy”, which used to mean “handy” or “convenient”, is now commonly used to refer to a mobile phone (Němcová, 2019).

2.3.2.3 The Amplification and Contraction of Meaning

When it comes to broadening, for example, in English, an example in this group is the word mouse. It is originally used to refer to a small, long-tailed animal but after the 1970s it is also used to refer to pointing devices used to control cursor movement. (Wijaya, D. T.,&Yeniterzi, R, 2011）This example reveals that semantics is a process of dynamic and gradual development.

In terms of narrowing, the opposite process of broadening, where a word with a broad meaning becomes more specific, so it refers to a smaller, more specialised set of things (Traugott, 2006). In English, meat originally meant any food, now specifically means animal flesh.

To sum up, these two shifts are common forms to demonstrate changes of syntax, which seems like a spring that can be retracted.

2.3.2.4 Metaphor and Metonymy

New meanings can emerge through metaphorical usage or metonymy. Metaphoric extension, in particular, occurs when the meaning of one word is applied to another word that is perceived as similar or sharing certain characteristics, even though they originate from different conceptual domains. (Traugott, 2006). For instance, in English, the phrase “it rains cats and dogs” means heavy rain, not real means cats and dogs.

2.3.3 Change of Pronunciation

The pronunciation of words can change over time due to various factors, including linguistic evolution, regional accents, and social influences.

2.3.3.1 Definition of pronunciation

Pronunciation refers to the way in which a word or a language is spoken. The term ‘pronunciation’ covers phonetics and phonemics. Moreover, it also encompassed the prosody of English, i.e. the ‘suprasegmentals’ which operate on longer stretches of utterance than sounds or phonemes (Cruttende, 2014).

(This table is generated from Gimson’s Pronunciation of English p.72)

2.3.3.2 Vowel Change and Consonant Change

In terms of vowel changes, the main vocalic changes in the development from old English to present day General British were:

firstly, vowels in weakly accented final syllables particular in suffixes were elided or obscured to [ǝ] or [ɪ] in ME that means middle English or eModE that means early modern English, then, short vowels have remained relatively stable. The principle exception is the splitting of ME [ʊ] into [ʌ] and [ʊ], the latter remaining only in some labial and velar contexts. All OE long vowels are closed in eModE or soon after.

Speaking of consonant changes, the main consonantal changes from OE to present-day General British(GB) were:

firstly, eMode /r/ has been lost in positions where it was not before a vowel, e.g., "in part”, “born”, “beard”, “fern”, apart from areas of the south-west and north-west England and in Scotland.

Then, certain consonant clusters ceased to be tolerated, e.g./hl,hr,hn/ by ME and /kn,gn,wr/ in the eModE period (Cruttende, 2014:72).

It can be seen that there are gradual and slight shifts of consonant and vowel between the period of ME and the period of eModE.

There is a table of principal isolated vowel changes from OE to GB.

Video link: About how to speak English accurately and clearly

https://youtu.be/n4NVPg2kHv4?si=TQh55AoTzVAS_HKP

2.4 Language change in cultural communication

Language, like everything else in the world, is changing (Wang,2011). Especially in different cultures, language change plays an important role. Cultural communication can help us understand language change in depth. Regarding the planning of this subtopic, first, an overview will be given about language change in cultural communication; then, three sub-themes, which are cultural language change in colonization, cultural language change in migration and the difference between ancient and modern cultural communication in language change, will be introduced.

figure 2.4.1 https://medium.com/linguistics-3c-winter-2018/languages-diversity-makes-our-world-better-364877c7e99

2.4.1 An overview of the topic of language change in cultural communication

Language change (figure2.4.1)in cultural communication is a dynamic and intricate process shaped by an array of interwoven influences. Language change is the process of alteration in the features of a single language, or of languages in general, across a period. Through cultural communication, language changes in pronunciation, grammar, syntax, and some other aspects, tend to influence a lot.

Why do we have cultural communication? Because there are a variety of different cultures which are generally called cultural diversity. Cultural diversity is considered a valuable aspect of human society. With the blending of languages, the community learns linguistically new social, technological, and environmental realities, ensuring that their cultural practices remain relevant. While it can facilitate cultural exchange and innovation, it can also pose risks to linguistic heritage and cultural identity. 

Why are our languages different? The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis gives us an answer. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis indeed provides a profound framework for understanding how our linguistic environment can shape our perception of reality. This hypothesis underscores the idea that the language we speak can influence the way we think, perceive the world, and interact with others. The German word "sturmfrei" describes the feeling of having the whole house to yourself when others are away (Nordquist,2019).

（figure 2.4.2 David Crystal.2000 Language Death）

2.4.2 Language change in colonisation

The language change in colonization's focus on culture led to various impacts. The power of colonization has a remarkable influence on the colonized country or region, which varies from official language use to day-to-day speaking.

Take English colonial expansion as an example. The historical account traces begin with the pioneering voyages to the Americas, Asia, and the Antipodes in the 19th century.

i. Language Change in America Due to Colonization

In America, the southern colony brought settlers from several parts of England(figure2.4.2); many of them came from Somerset and Gloucestershire and brought with their characteristic accent “Zummerzet” voicing of “s” sounds, and the “r” was strongly pronounced after vowels (Crystal, 2003).

Gradually, English became the dominant language in America while Indian nearly disappeared. However, there are still different accents and features from indigenous people.

figure:2.4.3 https://www.photophoto.cn/tupian/xianggangjianshajulubiao.html

ii. The Relationship between English and Cantonese in Hong Kong

The British colonization of Hong Kong had a significant impact on the linguistic landscape of the region. The English loanwords in Cantonese have changed from what they originally were in English. For example:

The adjective “ku1” is borrowed from the word “cool” in English. This word is typically used as a compliment to describe someone or something as fashionably attractive. The borrowed version “ku1” has a pejorative meaning, describing a person as distant or unfriendly (Wakefield,2018).

The phrase “dim sum” is traditional dishes in Hong Kong which is called “點心” in Cantonese.

Moreover, there are some notable effects of widespread use of English and Cantonese in Hong Kong:

a) All the street signs in Hong Kong are bilingual. (figure 2.4.3)Most streets were first christened in English and then translated into Chinese. British colonial rule has brought cultural hybridity to Hong Kong (Song,2020). Chinese have to get accustomed to the road names, which constantly inform and remind them of cultural diversity and differences (Cronin,2006).

b) In law, English in Hong Kong plays a significant role, while Chinese plays a marginal role in the higher courts of Hong Kong (Ng,2011). 

Additionally, colonization has also played a significant role in the decline and death of many languages worldwide.

a) Before being colonized by British, there are approximately 250 languages being spoken in Australia, many of which had several dialects.

b) Now, relatively few traditional languages are spoken day-to-day or are being transmitted to children. 

figure 2.4.4 https://www.fluentin3months.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/dead-languages.jpg

iii. The Loss of Native Speakers of Traditional Languages

Australia has the dubious reputation of being home to many of the world's most endangered languages. Seriously, Australia has been the home of many indigenous languages that are no longer spoken (Thieberger,2012). So, indigenous speakers have shifted away from traditional languages in many locations (Meakins & O'Shannessy,2016).

Losing a language not only means no one would say it anymore but also means losing unique cultural knowledge, traditions, and perspectives, making it an essential and urgent task to preserve and revitalize endangered languages. (figure 2.4.4)

figure2.4.5https://cdn.sanity.io/images/leeoh1ke/production/ec0beca1d79164ee3acc2edf19cf99dad0ac213e-10667x5251.jpg?fit=max

2.4.3 Language change in migration

Language change in immigration usually happens when migrants move from one linguistic environment to another to adapt to a new environment.

Some migrant communities make concerted efforts to maintain their native languages, especially in education and communities.

French migrants in Canada have significantly impacted the country's linguistic and cultural landscape.

The colonists had come from various regions in France over the 17th century and mostly settled in Montreal and Quebec City (Dupuis,2018). Due to geographical seclusion and due to British conquest, the French language in Canada presents different but related main dialects. For instance, the origins of Quebec French which lie in 17th and 18th century Parisian French, were influenced by folk dialects of the early modern period and other regional languages, such as Norman, Picard, and Poitevin-Saintongeais, which were brought by French colonists to New France.

The widespread use of French also affects Canada's policy. By the Official Languages Act(1969), both English and French are recognized as official languages in Canada and are granted equal status by the Canadian government. (Wade&Mason, 1974）

2.4.4 Ancient vs. modern cultural communication in language change

Ancient and modern cultural communication have played significant roles in shaping the way languages develop and transform. However, with the development of science and technology, there is a massive gap in terms of transformation between ancient and modern languages.

Figure 2.4.6 https://baike.baidu.com/pic/鉴真东渡/80821/1/359b033b5bb5c9ea15cee308bc6da1003af33b871599?fromModule=lemma_top-image&ct=single#aid=1&pic=359b033b5bb5c9ea15cee308bc6da1003af33b871599

In ancient times, communication was primarily oral and localized. During the Middle Ages, Latin was a highly prestigious lingua franca, the language of European scholarship (Robins, 1979). They followed the prescribed rules of Latin by paper-historical documents. The written words are often limited to religious texts and legal documents. The cultural communication happened in trade routes, conquests and migrations. The Sea Journey to the East of a Great Bonzefrom in the Tang Dynasty also spread Chinese character and helped to propagate Buddhism in Japan. (figure 2.4.6)

Modern communication is characterized by rapid technological advancements and globalization. Social media, internet and mass media play an important role in transformation–-the latest trends in terms are one of the remarkable ways. Modern cultural communication allows for the swift dissemination of linguistic trends and innovations across the globe.

2.5 The relationship between language and cognition

2.5.1 An overview of language and cognition

The relationship between language and cognition in psycholinguistics is a complex and multi-layered topic. Language and cognition could affect each other. The use of different languages also makes a difference in the way that we perceive and think about the whole world.

We can also uncover the nature of human language ability and form important theoretical foundations for some practical fields. In the following parts let us have more understanding about psycholinguistics and the relationship between language and cognition.

Figure 2.1:language is produced from people’s thinking

(Image downloaded from https://m.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=568959565451927

2.5.2 Language production from people’s thinking

As a core research area in psycholinguistics, language production involves the whole process from conceptual formation to language output. There are four aspects we are going to discuss about:

a)Conceptualization

b)Language encoding

c)Articulation

d)Self-monitoring

The first aspect is conceptualization. In the initial stage of expressing some ideas or concepts, individuals need to select and organize the information stored in their memory in a proper way, then it can come into a coherent thought.

Then it comes to the second aspect, language encoding. We need to find appropriate words which can express ideas precisely, then organize them into sentences based on specific rules such as grammatical rules. And finally convert them into corresponding forms such as tense and gender. We can see clearly that the language is produced from people’s thinking in this vivid image.(Figure2.1)

Next, relying on articulation and self-monitoring is also essential for us as we need the assistance of various parts of the body which produce sounds and allow us convey messages and produce language. Then others can grasp our ideas easily. An extreme position is formulated that “thought processes are really motor habits in the larynx”. It means that thought and speech are one and the same thing, thus making thought directly available to scientific study in the form of measurement of movements of the speech musculature (Waston, 1913). Another position in Russian psychology has a rich history. One of the voices of it is that when a child thinks he invariably talks at the same time, language and thought are closely linked in childhood (Sechenov, 1863).

2.5.3 Language comprehension process

After receiving spoken or written language, individuals decode and understand it by perceiving sounds or written symbols to extract meaning. It is a process including multiple cognitive and neural processes.There are two different parts in the perception:

a)Auditory perception

b)Visual perception

The common essence of both is that the sense organs of the body receive external signals and convert them into nerve signals and transmit them to the cerebral cortex. Accordingly, phonological and orthographic process identify and differ language information in the auditory and visual system respectively. (Figure2.2 shows the auditory system while Figure 2.3 show the visual system)

Then how does it come to form the comprehension? It’s the lexical access that helps us match the perceived phonological or orthographic information with the brain’s lexicon to identify specific words. And once a word is recognized, its meaning is activated, leading to comprehension.

But what we need is a holistic and in-depth understanding of the language. There are two following steps：

a)Syntactic processing

b)Semantic integration

The former builds the overall structure of the sentence by integrating and determining the relationship between words. While the latter requires us to understand the specific meaning of the sentence based on the context and related background knowledge. In this process, we observe the entire sentence in a macroscopic perspective.

However, it still seems to be stuck on the sentence itself rather than its actual function. Then let us look at the concept called pragmatic comprehension which focuses on actual function. Understanding the implied meaning and nuances of language, often involving social and cultural background knowledge, is an implication, which highlights the essence for us to look deeper for meanings that are not just superficial. And a part of the pragmatic comprehension is called intention recognition, referring to the necessity of encoding the sender’s intention and purpose. It makes the communication more effective.

From this we can see, language comprehension is a complex, multi-layered process involving tight coordination between perceptual, cognitive, linguistic, and neural mechanisms.

Figure 2.2:Auditory system(image generated by padlet)

Figure 2.3:Visual system(image generated by padlet)

2.5.4 Language acquisition

As a vital concept in psycholinguistics, language acquisition plays a key role in the process in which individuals learn and master a language, including several aspects. Let us move on to some related theories and have a clearer understanding of this process.

a) The Behaviorist Theory. (1988)

B.F. Skinner came up with the Behaviorist Theory, suggesting that language acquisition is achieved through imitation and reinforcement.

b) Nativist Theory. (1959)

It was proposed by Noam Chomsky, who holds the view of Nativist Theory. He advocated that language ability is innate and is based on a Universal Grammar. Children do have the ability of acquiring language naturally with the assistance of language acquisition device, which is known as LAD.

c) Social Interaction Theory. (1962)

The third one is called Social Interaction Theory, which emphasizes the importance of social interaction in language acquisition. It was proposed by Lev Vygotsky and others. It involves the idea that children can grasp the language gradually through the interaction with others.

How about the stages of language acquisition? First of all, babies learn language from basic babbling. Gradually over a few months, babies are able to speak a few words and phrases. Then, babies have the ability to speak several meaningful sentences. As they grow older, children can understand and use more complex sentence structures.

Additionally, in the process of language acquisition, there are two parts：

a). Input

b). Output.

The former one refers to the language information received by children. Both quality and quantity are important. Rich language input facilitates children's language development. The latter one refers to the language produced by children. Continuous practice and use of language help children better grasp language rules and vocabulary. It is the precise cooperation with others, which is on the cognitive plane, that teaches us to speak according to others and not simply from our own point of view (Piaget, 1976). And with linguistic representation, the child can transcend immediate space and time. It means that he can represent various outcomes to himself, speed up and reverse processes mentally, dissociate thought from action and take a more reflective view of the phenomena around him (Slobin,1979).

2.6 The nature of language from perspectives of philosophy

Plenty of perspectives on the question: “What is the nature of language?” We might say, “Language is a tool of communication.” However, how do philosophers think about this question？ From their words, we can have a deeper understanding of the nature of language. First, an overview recommending changes in philosophy will be given. Then there are three departments of different philosophical factions on the question： existentialism, materialism and idealism. Finally, these methods will be compared and summarised.

2.6.1 Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and subjective experience. It emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with critical figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus.

Existentialism is' a philosophical faction including individual freedom， choice and subjective which emerged in the late 19th

and early 20th centuries .Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jane’-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus are their representative personages.

Martin Heidegger, a famous philosopher, belongs to Existentialism. He said that "language is the house of Being". ( Peter D. Hertz（ Eds）1982 On the way to the language )Existentialism believes that we all live in a meaningless world. From Heidegger's perspective, language and existence are united. Though his left the expression of words and is. For existentialism, language is a medium of existence. We need to describe everything through language. If we cannot explain it, it is an item which does not exist.

2.6.2 Materialism

Materialism is a philosophical stance asserting that physical matter is the fundamental substance in nature and that all phenomena, including mental phenomena and consciousness, are results of material interactions. It is a form of physicalism that suggests that everything that exists is either made of matter or dependent on material processes.

Philosophers of materialism recognize the nature of language as an evolution of progress.

It occurs in people‘s evaluation and development. Language is a brain function rooted in physiological function. They also recognize it as a communication tool that connects different people and builds the city. They think language is a human creation rather than a natural thing.

2.6.3 Idealism

Classical idealism is a philosophical doctrine asserting that reality is fundamentally mental or immaterial. In contrast to materialism, which posits that physical matter is the primary substance of reality, idealism holds that the mind, consciousness, or ideas are the essential components of existence.

They think God is creating the language. For example, Christian think God created the language on the fifth day. The tower of Bable, another classical example for how Christian think of what is language：

That is why it was called Babel, since Yahweh confused the language of the whole world, and from there, Yahweh scattered them all over the world.Seems like what says language is a communication tool. However, it focuses on why language varieties exist and materialism focuses on its function in human progress and society.

God created,for example, God created focuses function is in humans.

2.6.4 Conclusion

These different perspectives are the various views of what built this world.

Existentialism thinks the world is a meaningless thing and we are useless things, too. Idealism is the god or other power that builds the world, so they think language is a creation of their gods of faith. For materialism, they believe the whole world is made of matter. Humans are the origin of every thinking activity.

Declaration: We declare that Generative AI tools have been used to prepare the submitted work. The Generative AI tools used and the manner in which they were used are as follows:

Open AI for generating ideas.

Kimi for generating ideas.

Grammarly for checking grammar.

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Comprehension questions (Chapter 2)

Please answer the following 12 multiple-choice questions.

1. The source of language indicates____

A. the original impetus making people acquire the ability to speak.

B. the places where different languages emerged.

C. the original way people learned to write words.

D. the person who was the first one to speak.

(Key:A)

2. Language serves as______

A. a tool of communication

B. a medium of expression

C. a product of socialization

D. all of the above

(Key: D)

3.Which of the following is a common reason for language change among immigrants?

A. Cultural isolation

B. Adaptation to a new environment

C. Lack of communication

D. Educational advancement

(Key: B)

4.Which of the following is one of the primary impacts of colonization on language?

A. Increased linguistic diversity

B. Loss of indigenous languages

C. Universal adoption of one language

D. Elimination of slang

(Key: B)

5.Which of the following is not semantic change?

A. Broadening and narrowing

B. Metaphor and Metonymy

C. The amplification and contraction

D. Vowel and consonant change

(Key: D)

6.Which word order is not from Old English?

A. SVOO

B. SVA

C. SVO

(Key: C)

7. How does exstentialism think about the nature of language？

A. Language is the home of being

B. Language was created by the god

C. Language is a tool for communi cation

D. None of the above is true

(Key: A)

8.What the nature of differences between these ideologies？

A. Different political stands

B. Ways of looking at the world

C. None of the above is true

D. What they believe.

(Key: B)

9.Which of the following parts in the language production does include error correction and other adjustments to make sure that our expectations are achieved when we communicate with others?

A. Conceptualization

B. Language encoding

C. Articulation

D. Self-monitoring

(Key: D)

10.What is the function of syntactic processing in the language comprehension process?

A. Building the overall structure of the sentence by integrating and determining the relationship between words.

B. Helping us understand the specific meaning of the sentence based on the context and related background knowledge.

C. Helping us understand the implied meaning and nuances of language, often involving social and cultural background knowledge.

D. Encoding the sender’s intention and purpose.

(Key: A)

11.Which of the following is the correct description of the usual phonetic structure of natural languages originated in hot and humid regions?

A. A lower reliance on the use of consonants

B. A higher reliance on the use of consonants

C. The use of consonants and vowels is equally dependent

D. All of the above are wrong

(Key: A)

12. Which of the following is wrong?

A. Geographical environment may affect the phonetic structure of natural language.
B. Cultural environment may influence the frequency of polite expressions in a language.

C. Language extinction is generally caused by a variety of factors.

D. Language extinction usually occurs when the number of speakers of the language is small.

(Key: D)

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