Embedded Files
There are various sub-topics that can be discussed in this chapter, such as meaning-making, register, metafunction, lexicogrammar, coherence, discourse, and theme and rhythm. After discussion, we have decided to focus on the following sub-topics: the definition, meaning-making, the difference between Functional and Structural Grammar, Form and Function, and the production of non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants.
4.1 The definition of the systemic-functional grammar
4.1 The definition of the systemic-functional grammar
To research and know more about systemic-functional grammar, we have to understand the deep definition of the theory: what is systemic-functional grammar? We think the deep understanding of the definition can help us do the further research. To introduce the definition properly, first we will introduce the theoretical foundations which will help us know the motivation of the theories produced. Second, we will talk more about the components of the metafunction which can let us know more about the area systemic-functional grammar is mainly talking to. Finally, the application will be introduced which stresses how important and practicable the theory is, the summary and how the theory developed will be given at the end.
Introduction
What is Systemic-Functional Grammar?
A brief overview of systemic-functional grammar and its significance in linguistics.
Systemic-functional grammar (SFG) is a theory of language that emphasizes the relationship between language and its social functions which is definited by M.A.K. Halliday. This theory was originated by a famous linguist called M.A.K. Halliday from the 1960s. Based on Halliday's emphasis on grammar, this kind of theory is more flexible and dynamic compared to seeing language as a rule which have to be followed, because it sees language as a resource that can make meaning. By Halliday's framework saying, it helps us to use the Holistics Approach to analyse the sentence, even the text. SFG uses the integration semantics (meaning), syntax (structure), and pragmatics (use) to build a comprehensive framework that allows us to analyze the language functions in the sentence in any text precisely and easily.
Figure: 4.1: Introduction: M.A.K. Halliday.
(Image downloaded from https://www.smh.com.au/national/mak-halliday-university-sydney-chomsky-linguists-20180509-p4zeap.html )
4.1.1 Theoretical Background
As the text has mentioned, the creator of the theory is a British linguist called Michael Halliday during the period of 1960s to 1970s. There are numerous factors that stimulate the production of the theory.
4.1.1.1 Historical Context
The first factor is the Historical Context.
Before the creation of SFG, the main theory of the linguistic landscape was structuralism, originated by Ferdinand de Saussure. This theory prefers language as a system of signs and highlights the internal structures of language. But the structuralist always ignores a very important factor while they are studying linguistics—how language is chosen and used in real situations for communication in our daily lives? So, the emergence of SFG has solved this problem.
Figure 4.2
(Image downloaded from Stablediffusionweb.com)
4.1.1.2 Sociolinguistics’ Effect
The second factor is that SFG has been deeply influenced by sociolinguistics (which is a kind of linguists beyond the range of traditional linguistics and linked the sociology up).
The creation of sociolinguistics also plays a key role in shaping SFG. The work of scholars such as Dell Hymes, who emphasized the relationship between language and social interaction, contributed to Halliday’s understanding of language as a social semiotic system.
Figure 4.3
(Image generated from Padlet)
4.1.2 Components of Systemic-Functional Grammar
There are three core components in the Systemic-Functional Grammar area: Systemic-functional grammar (SFG) includes three main components: ideational (representing ideas and experiences), interpersonal (managing social interactions), and textual (organizing information coherently). It means language can be seen as a system and can be dynamic so that different expressions and meanings can be shown by distinct choices of language using
4.1.2.1 Ideational Metafunction
The first factor in Metafunction is Ideational Metafunction, which stresses on how language can describe ideas, share experiences, express emotions and represent the world around us.
Through the Halliday, he identifies Transitivity as the principal grammatical element in the ideational metafunction, which involves the verbal group in a clause and represents the processes, participants and circumstances involved in experiences (Justine Bakuuro 2017).
Figure 4.4
(Image generated from Padlet)
4.1.2.2 Interpersonal Metafunction
The interpersonal metafunction refers to the use of language to establish and manage social relationships and interactions between speakers and listeners, enabling functions such as requesting, commanding, questioning, and asserting (2015 Christian Matthiessen and M.A.K. Halliday). The interpersonal metafunction focuses on how we use language to interact with others and express attitudes, emotions, and relationships. Different from Ideational Metafunction which focuses on the process of expressing information, the Interpersonal Metafunction highlights social relationships and engagement. For instance: “Can you help me to search this book?” When a person is saying this sentence, it means the speaker is finding assistance for help, this shows the relationship between the speaker and the listener.
Figure 4.5
(Image generated from Padlet)
4.1.2.3 Textual Metafunction
Figure 4.6
(Image generated from Padlet)
The Textual Metafunction is a concept that focuses on how language organizes information in a coherent and cohesive manner. It stresses the perspective of the structure of the text, which makes the ideas shown by the sentences more logical and fluent, and importantly, makes other listeners or readers understand the meaning easily. Chirstian M.I.M. Mathiessen has said in 2015: the Textual Metafunction provides strategies for guiding the listener’s interpretation of the text and is realized through systems such as THEME, which helps set up a local context for a clause by selecting a point of departure in the flow of information.
Importantly, in our daily use, the Textual Metafunction ensures that our messages are clearer and more connected. Normally, Textual Metafunction is like an introduction book, allowing people to follow the steps, and understand the process of assembling the furniture easily.
4.1.3 Application of Systemic-Functional Grammar
Because of this kind of improvement that Systemic-Functional Grammar has brought, more and more applications are emercing based on this theory.
4.1.3.1 Systemic-Functional Grammar in Discourse Analysis
Applying systemic-functional grammar (SFG) to analyze spoken and written discourse provides valuable insights into how language functions in communication.
In spoken interactions, SFG focus on the connection between the listeners and speakers, and how different choice of words, tone and structure will affect people to persuade and clarify meanings. In another way, it researches another category of person—author, which is in the written texts field. In this field, discourse analysis refers to discovering the way the author put information and plots what he or she wants to write, employing rhetorical strategies together in a logical way to allow readers to get the meaning and what ideas and thoughts the author wants to express clearly.
Figure 4.7
(Image generated from Padlet)
4.1.3.2 Implication for language teaching.
Figure 4.8
(Image generated from Padlet)
Systemic-Functional Grammar can be a useful tool in the teaching area, where teachers can stress the functional perspective of language practice. For students who are studying a foreign language, it’s important to let them understand how the daily conversations have been built and constructed by language. Systemic-Functional Grammar provides a framework for understanding grammar that can be beneficial for teaching purposes, as it emphasizes the overall system of grammar rather than just fragments, which can help learners understand how language functions in various contexts, which is valuable for language education (Christian M.I.M. Mathiessen 2015)
4.1.4 Conclusion
Systemic-Functional Grammar is a significance theory in the Linguistics field and gives another perspective to see and research the language we use and the interactions between people.
By seeing language as a flexible perspective but not the highly prescriptive aspect, SFG gives a chance to use language with personalized thoughts. People can express their thoughts and feelings freely and conveniently. SFG provides a powerful framework for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural identity, and meaning-making processes. By researching the complex relationship between language and interactions, SFG can give an essential opportunity for educators, linguists and communicators. All in all, the development of SFG will definitely facilitate the improvement of AI and broaden the interactions between people all over the world which will make people’s live more colorful and meaningful.
4.2 The different meanings showed by grammar change
4.2 The different meanings showed by grammar change
Introduction
This section delves into how grammatical changes influence communication, touching on active and passive voice distinctions, the evolution of words into grammatical elements, and the versatility of homonyms. It also explores systemic functional grammar's experiential, interpersonal, and textual meanings, showcasing language's role in representing experiences, fostering relationships, and organizing messages.
4.2.1 Grammatical Changes and Meaning Shifts
Figure 4.9:
(Image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/MA5NaVxUBSVUZacD9)
4.2.1.1 Passive vs. Active Voice
The choice of voice affects focus and clarity:
Active: "The chef cooked the meal."
Passive: "The meal was cooked by the chef."
Active voice emphasizes the subject performing the action, while passive voice focuses on the action or recipient. This change can alter the sentence's focus and effect.
4.2.1.2 Impersonal Constructions
In passive voice, impersonal constructions can emphasize actions over agents:
"Mistakes were made."
Such constructions can obscure responsibility, useful in diplomatic or formal contexts.
4.2.1.3 Grammaticalization
Grammaticalization involves words evolving into grammatical elements:
"Going to" in "I am going to eat" has become a future tense marker.
This process alters original meanings, reflecting language evolution and changing communication needs.
Figure 4.10:
(Image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/bdLRJyYkvCZQ3E9p7)
4.2.1.4 Expressive Nuances of Grammar Changes
Beyond structural shifts, the nuances of grammar changes also influence the emotional and expressive qualities of language.
For example, “She was loved” vs “They loved her”.
The former conveys a sense of passive reception, while the latter highlights active affection. These subtle variations in grammar can evoke different emotional responses such as empathy or envy, enabling those who utilize words to manipulate the thoughts and feelings of the receiver.
4.2.2 Isolation of Grammar Change
Figure 4.11:
(Image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/ugV7Zh9tWQWbszF48)
4.2.2.1 Homonyms across Forms
Some words maintain the same form but gain different meanings when they switch grammatical categories. These versatile words, known as homonyms, demonstrate how changing a word's grammatical category—such as from a noun to a verb, or an adjective to a noun—often shifts its meaning significantly.
Take the word "play," which functions as both a noun and a verb. As a noun, "play" might refer to a theatrical performance, while as a verb, it describes the act of engaging in a game or activity. Despite the identical spelling and pronunciation, the context in which the word is used determines its meaning entirely.
Another example is "light." As a noun, it refers to the natural agent that makes things visible, such as sunlight. As an adjective, it describes something that has little weight, like "light luggage." This duality allows for concise communication, where the listener relies on context to discern the intended meaning.
4.2.2.2 Cognitive Processing of Homonyms
The cognitive processing of homonyms offers insights into how the human brain navigates linguistic ambiguity. “The successful search for a homonym requires multiple access to the mental lexicon to establish a specific word form that contains two different links to the semantics of the given stimuli.” (Weis 2001) This cognitive flexibility underscores the adaptive nature of language and its intricate relationship with cognition.
Figure 4.12
(Image downloaded from https://images.app.goo.gl/iRBqnQHPZoQpQyVE6)
4.2.3 Meaning in Systemic Functional Grammar
4.2.3 Meaning in Systemic Functional Grammar
In systemic functional grammar, meaning can be split into three main categories, also known as metafunctions: experiential, interpersonal, and textual. Each of these categories provides a different form of presentation and purpose.
4.2.3.1 Experiential Meaning
Experiential meaning allows us “to reflect on our experiences, to represent the world, to make sense of the world” (Emmitt & Pollock, 1997, p. 82). The purpose of experiential meaning is to figure out what is happening through the organization of words in a sentence into categories such as “Actor, Process, and Goal”. The “Actor” will always be the character who performs an action and will not change even if a sentence is reordered.
4.2.3.2 Interpersonal Meaning
The interpersonal function enables us to interact with other people, establish relationships with them, and get things done (Thompson, 2004). This meaning focuses on the subject of the sentence and can be changed through the reordering of an utterance.
For example, in “Did Peter eat the cake?” vs “Was the cake eaten by Peter?”, Peter is the subject in the prior sentence while the cake is the subject in the latter.
4.2.3.3 Textual Meaning
Textual meaning permits us to organize our experiential and interpersonal meanings into a linear and coherent whole, organizing our messages in ways that indicate how they dovetail in with the other messages around them (Thompson, 2004). Here, a sentence would be split into two parts, the theme and the rheme, based on the order of the words.
For example, in “Did Peter eat the cake?”, the theme would be “Did Peter” while the rheme would be “eat the cake”. However, in “Was the cake eaten by Peter?”, the theme would be “Was the cake” while the rheme would be “eaten by Peter”.
4.2.3.4 Application of Systemic Functional Grammar
The application of systemic functional grammar extends beyond linguistic analysis to various fields such as education, discourse analysis and translation.
In education, understanding the metafunctions of language can enhance literacy instruction through the use of context, examples, and practice to teach grammar effectively, facilitating language acquisition and competence.
In discourse analysis, systemic functional grammar provides a framework for examining how language structures influence communication patterns as subtle changes can lead to significant interpretation shifts, altering the power dynamics of the argument.
In translation, translators may apply systemic functional grammar to convey accurate meanings, ensuring translation quality and respect towards the receiver.
By maintaining this structured format, the content is organized effectively, allowing for a clearer understanding of the various aspects of grammar changes and their impacts on communication.
4.3 The difference between functional grammar and structural grammar
4.3 The difference between functional grammar and structural grammar
4.3.1 The Main Difference between Structural Grammar and Functional Grammar
To comprehend Language, structural grammar and functional grammar are two approaches to do so. They are two systems that vary from each other, with different focuses and approaches to language.
Figure 4.13: Photo of Noam Chomsky
(Image downloaded from http://www.vincenzocottinelli.it/chomsky-noam-portraits-323.php)
4.3.1.1 Structural Grammar
Structural Grammar has a more rule-based focus. It emphasises the formal aspects of language, such as syntax and sentence structure. It mainly stresses on the internal structure of a sentence, like analysing grammatical rules, parts of speech, and the relationships between words in sentences.
One of the most iconic examples is transformational-generative grammar (Chomsky, 1957) (Figure 4.13), proposing the idea that all grammatical sentences in a language can be formed when following it, concentrating on the structure of the sentences.
4.3.1.2 Functional Grammar
Functional Grammar, however, is based on context and meaning to generate a sentence, as it centres on how language functions in communication and its role in conveying meaning. It examines the context, purpose, and social aspects of language use, including discourse and pragmatics. For example, Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) (Halliday, 1961) has focused on Language on a social basis, and study the relationship between language.
4.3.1.3 Conclusion
The main difference of structural grammar and functional grammar is their nature. Structural grammar cares more about rules and forms, with only grammatically correct and incorrect sentences with no inbetween. Functional grammar respects change in social circumstances, and is more flexible when determining the proper way to construct sentences and how they are utilised.
4.3.2 Dependence on context in functional grammar
The contextual dependence of functional grammar emphasizes how the meaning and structure of language are shaped by the situational, cultural, and social contexts in which communication occurs. As functional grammar needs to rely on context to construct sentences, the significance of context is paramount in language use.
4.3.2.1 Construction of Meaning
Context can change the meaning of a grammatical structure to fit the current situation, affecting the interpretation. For example, the sentence "I will go" may imply future plans, yet the circumstances in building this sentence have the ability to change the most generic meaning that comes from the tense by examining the previous statement or question.
If we add “If he continues to smoke, what will you do?” as a question, the sentence becomes an answer. The context will no longer be about implying future plans but answering a hypothetical question.
4.3.2.2 Target audience
In functional grammar, the intended functions of speech acts (e.g., requests, offers, commands) are contextual, depending on what the target is.
Figure 4.15: Please stop doing this
(image drawn by student C)
In Figure 4.15, the sentence “Please stop doing this” is directed to two different subjects, a cat and a co-worker. The sentence is generally considered as a request, which is applicable to the Co-worker, as the relationship between the speaker and the listener is equal. Regarding the response to the cat, the speech act transforms into a command, as the animal is a pet to the speaker, showing an imbalanced role dynamic on unequal footing.
4.3.2.3 Social norms
Grammatical structures can also be corrected into forms that fit social norms. Ammon, Dittmar, Mattheier, and Trudgill (2005) suggested that the face theory from Goffman (1971) then expanded by Brown and Levinson ([1978]1987) introduces the concept of “face”, a symbol for one’s social identity. It is stated that politeness exists in conversations to avoid losing “face” or causing others to lose “face”, maintaining relationships to create a society with less conflict.
Grammatical structures are influenced by the face theory and many more that are similar, like approaching sensitive topics or improving one’s relations with others, to be more acceptable in modern society.
4.3.2.4 Formality
Different contexts require different levels of formality, affecting grammatical choices. There are three kinds of formality: Formal, semi-formal, and causal.
Formal occasions, including writing an analytical report, or writing a script for a speech, build the content with professional wording in a serious tone.
Semi-formal occasions, often related to office emails or letters of advice, use a more relaxed but respectable attitude and have less complicated sentence structures.
Causal occasions like in messages or blog posts tend to use simple words and colloquial language.
These three formalities in language usage prove that grammar choices and style of writing can be affected by context in a large extent.
4.3.2.5 The Discourse
The context influences how sentences are connected within a discourse. When a sentence has cohesive devices (like conjunctions and pronouns), context helps to interpret its meaning by providing prior information to make sense of the grammatical structure.
Figure 4.16: She is going to find out
(Image drawn by student C)
In Figure 4.16, “She is going to find out” confuses the listener since no context is given as to whom the female mentioned is, showing that without prior information given by context, such discourse cannot be comprehensible.
4.3.2.6 Dynamic Understanding of Language for learners
To learners, contextual-based learning allows them to process a dynamic understanding of language use that aligns with social and situational factors. By exposing learners to an environment of contextual language, observations of how language is used in real life speed up their learning process in mastering grammar structures and how to construct sentences.
4.3.3 Limitations of traditional grammar
Language is intricate in nature, thus traditional grammar, particularly in its structural form, has several limitations that affect its ability to fully capture language’s complexities.
4.3.3.1 Prescriptive approach
Traditional grammar is prescriptive, setting strict rules about how language should be used. It stays fixed in terms of syntax and structure and pays no mind to how language morphs into different forms over centuries. Using traditional grammar may result in disconnection from authentic communication that represents how people actually talk nowadays.
4.3.3.2 Deep and Surface Structure
According to Chomsky’s transformational-generative grammar (1957), surface and deep structure are the fundamental concepts in language that help construct and explain sentences. Surface structure is the sentence, and deep structure is its context.
Figure 4.17: Deep Structure and Surface Structure
(Image downloaded from Resource: https://www.anilthomasnlp.com/post/nlp-surface-structure-and-deep-structure)
As shown in figure 4.17, surface structure relies on deep structure to form infinite sentences, and deep structure needs surface structure to express what is on the speaker’s mind.
Traditional grammar concentrates on the surface structure more, without delving into the underlying meanings or relationships that give rise to these forms. With the deep structure being neglected, the same syntax structure of a sentence may differ in context, but in traditional grammar, it is difficult to detect the difference between the sentences since the form is the main focus.
4.3.3.3 Social circumstances
Traditional grammar can be ignorant on a social basis, lacking basic context sensitivity. Factors such as the speaker’s intent, the social setting, and the relationship between interlocutors are often ignored.
For instance, in Korean culture, when interacting with elders, juniors should always use honorific language when communicating. From the perspective of traditional grammar, the focus is the grammatical correctness of the sentence spoken, overlooking the occasion.(Southkorea, 2023)
Ignoring the social aspects of language may lead to a rigid understanding of language that does not reflect its dynamic nature in communication, unable to utilize the language thoroughly.
4.3.3.4 Categorization Deflects
Putting words into categories highlights one of traditional grammar’s conveniences, relying on them for parts of speech and sentence structures. It offers a systematic framework for learners to understand basic grammar rules. While this can provide clarity in some cases, it may also oversimplify the complexity of language. While some words can be grouped and fitted into a premade sentence structure, like verbs or adjectives, many constructions and words do not comply with such a system.
Figure 4.18: This aged well
(Image downloaded from resource:http://www.reddit.com/r/HolUp/co
mments/t773zo/fact/)
For example, in Figure 4.18 the phrase “This aged well” with an image of an old well that can be described as “aged” is the prime display of a word that can not be categorized into just one category. The term “well” acts as an adverb, describing the well-being in good shape even though it was old and decaying. The term can also act as a noun, indicating the literal object in the photo. This trait of traditional grammar leads to inadequacies in analyzing and understanding language use.
4.3.3.5 Linguistic creativity
Traditional grammar is a hindrance to linguistic creativity and flexibility. Structural grammar focuses on constructing sentences systematically, proposing that language should be interpreted straightforwardly.
Bergs (2019) defined linguistic creativity with both Chomsky’s and Sampson’s (2016) insights, with Chomsky agreeing that creativity in language is fixed and should be built on the foundation of existing grammar structure with no original meaning, and Sampson making a distinction between fixed creativity and enlarging creativity.
The former produces sentences within the known language knowledge, while the latter creates new sentences and breaks free from the restrictions of structured language.
Traditional grammar completely opposes the emergence of innovative expressions of new linguistic forms. This rigidity can hinder the development of language skills that are adaptive to varying communicative situations.
4.3.4 Accuracy or Acceptability?
Language has created two sides of grammarians, traditional grammarians and functional grammarians. The former emphasizes grammatical accuracy, while the latter cares more for acceptability in society.
4.3.4.1 Accuracy
Traditionists view language as a static system where deviations from standard forms are often labeled as incorrect. They hold an indestructible belief in “the right way” to build sentences, restricting linguistics creativity and flexibility in language use.
4.3.4.2 Acceptability
Functionalists, on the other hand, treat language as a living organism, like a tree. This “tree” is shaped by real-world usage, with its “gardeners” prioritizing how language functions in context, valuing authentic communication over rigid adherence to rules.
By observing how language is used in real life, functional grammar tends to view language change as natural and accept it, fostering a more inclusive approach that embraces linguistic change and innovation.
4.3.4.3 Conclusion
From ancient times to modern society, language shifted and changed along with the development of mankind, evolving into an organic being that cannot be contained by rules imposed by dead scholars centuries ago. Acceptance in any form of grammatical approach helps to form an inclusive environment for language learners and users.
4.4 Form And Function
4.4 Form And Function
Michael Halliday first introduced the concept of functional grammar back in 1985. It offers an insightful way for students and researchers to understand language by focusing on the meaning and use of each sentence. Instead of emphasizing the structure of language, it instead discovers how these structures serve various communicative purposes. In this section, we will delve into the relation between form and function and how they shape the meaning of conversations.
4.4.1 The Meaning of Form
In linguistics, "form" refers to the structure or arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence. However, In functional grammar, "form" is often contrasted with "meaning," where form refers to how something is expressed, while meaning refers to what is being communicated. (Thompson, 2014) Let’s explain some key components of Form by using this sentence: ”I went to school by bus this morning."
4.4.1.1 The Key Components of Form
There are several key components of form, which are actors, processes, goals, and circumstances. In the sentence above, the person “I” is the actor. He is the person who initiated the action. The verb “went” is the process. It describes the action taking place, which is the action of traveling. “To school” is the goal. This is the destination of the action. Lastly, “this morning” and “by bus” are the circumstances. They provide the setting, offering context when and how the action occurred.
4.4.1.2 Sentence Structure
Figure 4.19: Students going to school by bus.
(Image downloaded from https://www.istockphoto.com/hk/照片/a-young-boy-getting-onto-a-school-bus-in-sunshine-gm1395748040-450746882)
One way to analyze sentence structure is to think in terms of form and function. (Dharmawan, 2014) In functional grammar, sentence structure refers to the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence to convey meaning. This helps the reader understand how components like subjects, verbs, objects, and modifiers work together.
The sentence “I went to school by bus this morning” is a simple sentence. It only contains one single clause, and its use is to convey straightforward information clearly. To transform the sentence above into a compound sentence, we need to add extra clauses and use conjunctions (e.g., for, but, and, yet) to connect them. For example, “I went to school by bus this morning, yet I was still late for school.” It can highlight connections between actions or ideas.
For complex sentences, it can express nuanced thoughts and relationships between ideas. It consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent (or subordinate) clause. Independent clauses and dependent clauses need to be connected in order to convey a full sentence. For instance, “I went to school by bus this morning because I was too tired to walk to school.”
4.4.2 Examining Function
In functional grammar, function refers to the role that a linguistic element plays in conveying meaning within a particular context. This approach emphasizes that language is a system designed to fulfill specific communicative purposes instead of a set of rules and structures. (Thompson, 2014)
There are mainly three metafunctions that describe how language operates in different scenarios.
4.4.2.1 Ideational Function
The ideational function represents the experiential content of the passage. It focuses on how language represents our experiences of the world, including both external events and internal thoughts, feelings, and beliefs. (Thompson, 2014) There are multiple types of processes in the ideational function. For example, material processes, mental processes, verbal processes, and so on. Halliday & Matthiessen (2013) The processes are physical actions, internal experiences, and speech-related actions, respectively.
4.4.2.2 Interpersonal Function
The interpersonal function of language focuses on how we use language to interact with others, establish relationships, and negotiate meanings (Thompson, 2014). There are several examples of interpersonal functions, for example, asking a question, making an offer, making a request, and so on. The interpersonal function allows speakers to express their intentions, negotiate meanings, and build relationships through language. (Thompson, 2014)
4.4.2.3 Textual Function
The textual function of language focuses on how we organize and structure our messages to create coherent and cohesive texts. It involves the ways in which language is used to connect ideas, manage information flow, and guide the reader or listener through a discourse. (Thompson, 2014)
For instance, cohesion is one of the main examples of textual function. “Mike loves playing badminton. He plays it every Saturday with his family.” The pronoun “he” refers to Mike, creating a cohesive between two sentences.
Another example is conjunctions. “I was supposedly going for a hike this morning. However, the rain says otherwise.” The conjunction “however” helps with connecting the two contrasting ideas, structuring the relationship between them.
In summary, textual function is crucial for creating coherence in everyday communication. It helps the speaker and reader to structure different messages with higher efficiency.
Figure 4.20: Mike playing badminton with his family.
(Ai image generated by padlet)
4.4.3.1 The relationship between form and function
The form of a sentence often reflects its function. For example, the structure of a question (interrogative form) is designed to elicit information, while a command (imperative form) is structured to instruct or request action. (Thompson, 2014)
Let’s take “A cat on a couch” as an example for the context.
“The cat is sleeping on the couch.” This sentence is in declarative form. It simply stated the fact that a cat is sleeping on the couch.
“Is the cat sleeping on the couch?” This sentence is in interrogative form. It asked for confirmation about the cat’s status.
“Go check if the cat is sleeping on the couch.” This sentence is in imperative form. It gives somebody a command or a request to take action, in this case, checking if the cat is sleeping on the couch.
Although these three sentences are all revolving around a cat on a couch, the functions of the three sentences are all different.
Figure 4.21: A cat sleeping on a couch.
(Image downloaded from https://www.shutterstock.com/search/cat-sleeping-on-couch)
4.4.3.2 Different Functions in the Same Form and Vice Versa
Figure 4.22: A man in disbelief.
(Image downloaded from https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/confused-angry-young-man-frustrated-by-1063889216)
Although some sentences have the same form, the meaning within the sentences can differ hugely. Let’s take these sentences as examples.
“Are you sure that person is the suspect?”
“Tim, you’re coming with us right?”
“You must be kidding, right?”
These three sentences are all in interrogative form. However, each of the sentences’ functions are different. The first sentence is asking for clarification on the suspect’s identity. The second sentence is seeking confirmation of Tim’s participation in the plan. The last sentence is expressing disbelief. While three sentences are structured as questions, they all have unalike commutative purposes. It further proves how the same grammatical setting can convey different meanings.
On the other hand, sentences with the same function can take on different forms. (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2013)
For example, to ask what time it is, the speaker can use both the interrogative and declarative sentences. “What time is it right now?” “I would like to know the time.”
If the speaker were to make a suggestion, both interrogative and imperative forms can express the same meaning. “Should we try the new restaurant?” “Let’s try out the new restaurant.”
To summarize, although the two sentences have the same communicative function, they can still be conveyed through different grammatical structures.
4.5 The Production of Non-standard Grammatical and Syntactical Variants
4.5 The Production of Non-standard Grammatical and Syntactical Variants
Figure 4.23 Examples of Non-standard English
(Image downloaded from https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/non-standard-english-11657777)4.5.1 Introduction
Non-standard English is the dialects, patois and other types of language that exist in distinct regions and social groups. There are numerous examples of non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants according to geographical location and cultural or sub-cultural identities (Crystal, 2003). These forms of English differ from one another in a systematic way and the standard English in grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation.
4.5.2 The Influence of Age and Generational Change
The production of non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants is significantly influenced by age and generational changes as most of the words adopted now are frequently used by young speakers, which reflects the social and cultural context.
Figure 4.24 Chats with emojis
(Image downloaded from https://hackernoon.com/try-this-text-only-in-emojis-1af2bfcfec78 )
4.5.2.1 Digital Communications
The critical change is about digital communication. Due to the advancement of technology, there are various types of digital communication platforms like Whatsapp and Instagram for people to share their thoughts, which introduces new linguistic norms. In written communications, these platforms provide another pathway for young individuals to communicate with others such as emojis and abbreviations, not only limited to words. It creates a new type of language, which can be treated as non-standard grammatical structures.
Figure 4.24 Examples of abbreviations
(Image downloaded from https://www.eztexting.com/resources/sms-resources/popular-text-abbreviations )
4.5.2.1.1 Examples
Nowadays, younger speakers are not willing to type a long sentence for asking some simple questions so they will create some short forms for convenience. For example, when they want to know if their friends would like to have lunch together, they only use a restaurant emoji with a question mark to ask the question, instead of typing ‘Do you want to have lunch together?’. ‘IDK’ and ‘NP’ are also some examples of abbreviations that are commonly used by young speakers for text messages.
In conclusion, age and generational differences play a crucial role in the production of non-standard grammatical forms and syntactical structures. The young speakers innovate and adapt new grammatical forms and syntactical structures to suit their context, contributing to the ongoing evolution of language.
4.5.3 Non-Standard Variants in Educational Settings
4.5.3.1 Challenges
There are several challenges faced by educators when dealing with non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants in the classroom.
4.5.3.1.1 Lack of Training and Resources
The educators only receive training on how to teach standard language but do not have enough experience in teaching non-standard variants. It may be difficult for them to take care of all students’ needs.
4.5.3.1.2 Standard Language Expectations
The educational system often prioritizes standard language forms for assessments and formal writing tasks. The educators have to follow this system for planning their teaching schedule. For those who are using non-standard forms, it is difficult for them to follow the pace of teaching, which may create tension for students using non-standard variants and lead to lower academic performance and a sense of inadequacy.
4.5.3.1.3 Stigmatization of Non-Standard Variants
With the tension created, it may also result in the stigmatization of non-standard forms. Some people may judge students who speak in non-standard language forms that their languages are wrong, negatively affecting their self-esteem and willingness to participate in class events. Teachers might emphasize linguistic diversity in order to strike a balance between teaching students standard language forms and appreciating their linguistic backgrounds. They can introduce students to non-standard language, knowing the features and the history of this type of language, in order to understand the complexity and the richness of linguistic variation.
4.5.3.2 Balancing Teaching Approaches
Figure 4.25
(Image generated by Padlet)
4.5.3.2.1 Code-Switching as a Teaching Tool
Educators can adopt code-switching to empower students. It is the ability to switch from one language dialect to another, which can help students understand more about different language forms.
4.5.3.2.2 Valuing Linguistic Diversity
By acknowledging and appreciating the linguistic backgrounds of their pupils, teachers may foster an inclusive learning environment. This involves verifying the legitimacy of all language forms and introducing conversations about linguistic variety into the curriculum.
To sum up, addressing non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants in the classroom presents significant challenges for educators. Fostering an inclusive and encouraging learning environment requires finding a balance between teaching standard language forms and recognizing the value of students' linguistic origins. Teachers can enable students to navigate various language environments while enjoying their identities by appreciating linguistic diversity and offering clear instruction.
4.5.4 Code-switching and Non-Standard Variants
Figure 4.26: Code Switching
(Image downloaded from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/code-switching-hidden-cost-call-change-your-mba-journey-wesolv )
4.5.4.1 Definition
Code-switching plays a significant role in the production of non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants, especially among bilingual speakers. It involves switching between different language varieties based on the situation.
4.5.4.2 Examples
Spanglish, a combination of Spanish and English spoken in multilingual communities, is a typical example.
Figure 4.27
(Image downloaded from https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=OaMZ9dL_ZjI )
4.5.4.3 Roles
Code-switching signifies cultural identity in addition to linguistic flexibility. Speakers navigate various linguistic situations while expressing their membership in particular social groupings by employing non-standard variations. This exercise demonstrates how language can adapt to the identities and requirements of its users.
4.5.4.4 Benefits
Educators can leverage code-switching as a teaching tool, helping students understand when and how to use different language forms. Teachers enable pupils to value their linguistic heritages and build academic and formal abilities by increasing their knowledge of linguistic variance. Additionally, by encouraging pride in their individuality, conversations regarding code-switching might assist students in appreciating the significance of their linguistic identities.
In summary, code-switching is essential for bilingual speakers to produce non-standard grammatical and syntactical varieties. Speakers traverse their social environments by conveying their ancestry and adjusting to various situations through code-switching.
4.5.5 Media Representation of Non-Standard Language
Figure 4.28
(Image downloaded from https://www.basic-concept.com/c/concept-of-mass-media-with-types )
Non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants are increasingly popular in various media forms, including television, films and literature. The variety of language in society is reflected in the frequent usage of non-standard language by characters in literature, movies, and television. These depictions, meanwhile, may yield conflicting results. They can verify the identity of speakers who employ non-standard versions, on the one hand. However, they may also serve to strengthen unfavorable preconceptions and biases.
4.5.5.1 Positive Examples
Television and films are powerful platforms that show linguistic diversity. The characters often incorporate non-standard language forms to reflect authentic speech patterns. For example, some of the shows feature characters who speak non-standard languages.
4.5.5.2 Negative Examples
However, this representation can be double-edged. It can also perpetuate negative stereotypes. Characters who speak non-standard accents, for example, could be perceived as less intelligent or credible, which can lead to negative stereotypes. Such representations can potentially increase social stigma by influencing how viewers view speakers of non-standard languages.
4.5.5.3 Effects
Positive portrayals of non-standard language, on the other hand, can dispel these myths and advance a greater awareness of linguistic diversity. More honest depiction in the media has been the focus of a growing movement in recent years. Richer characters that represent the realities of their communities are the result of writers and creators becoming more conscious of the need to authentically depict linguistic diversity. This change promotes greater acceptance of linguistic diversity in society while also validating the experiences of speakers of non-standard variations.
The representation of non-standard grammatical and syntactical variation in media is a complex issue with significant implications for public perceptions of language users. While media can reinforce negative stereotypes, they also have the potential to challenge societal norms and promote a more inclusive understanding of linguistic diversity.
Reference List
Reference List
@aithor. (2024, March 19). Standard and Non-Standard Types of the English Language. Aithor.com. https://aithor.com/essay-examples/standard-and-non-standard-types-of-the-english-language#12-definition-of-non-standard-english
Alexander, L. D. (2012). Review: Articulate While Black: Barack Obama, Language, and Race in the U.S. by H. Samy Alim and Geneva Smitherman. Explorations in Ethnic Studies, 35(1), 181–183. https://doi.org/10.1525/esr.2012.35.1.181
Anon. (2022). Microsoft - Search. Www.bing.com. https://www.bing.com/ck/a?
Atlas: School AI Assistant. (2024). Atlas. https://www.atlas.org/?ref=taaft
Bakuuro, Justine. “Demystifying Halliday’s Metafunctions of Language.” International Journal of Language and Literature, vol. 5, no. 2, 2017, https://doi.org/10.15640/ijll.v5n2a21.
Bergs, A. (2019). What, If Anything, Is Linguistic Creativity? Gestalt Theory, 41(2), 173–183. https://doi.org/10.2478/gth-2019-0017
Burling, R., & Labov, W. (1975). Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Language, 51(2), 505. https://doi.org/10.2307/412879
Chomsky Noam photogallery - Vincenzo Cottinelli free-lance photographer. (2024). Vincenzocottinelli.it. http://www.vincenzocottinelli.it/chomsky-noam-portraits-323.php
Davydova, J. (2012). Variationist Sociolinguistics. Change, Observation, Interpretation. Journal of Pragmatics, 44(8), 1012–1015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2012.04.006
Dharmawan, Y. Y. (2014). AN ANALYSIS OF TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR, IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS, AND X-BAR SYNTAX THEORY. An Analysis of Traditional Grammar, Immediate Constituent Analysis, and X-Bar Syntax Theory, 2. http://artikel.ubl.ac.id/index.php/icel/article/download/324/326
Emmitt, M., & Pollock, J. (1997). Language and learning: An Introduction for Teaching.
Functional Grammar. (2024). PowerShow. https://www.powershow.com/viewfl/20f0e1-ZDc1Z/Functional_Grammar_powerpoint_ppt_presentation
Gottardo, Alexandra, et al. “Relationships between First and Second Language Phonological Processing Skills and Reading in Chinese‐English Speakers Living in English‐Speaking Contexts.” Educational Psychology, vol. 26, no. 3, June 2006, pp. 367–393, https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500341098. Accessed 25 Feb. 2021.
Halliday, M., & Matthiessen, C. M. (2013). Halliday’s Introduction to Functional Grammar. Routledge.
Matthiessen, Cristian, and Halliday M.A.K. “Systemic Functional Grammar: A First Step in to the Theory.” ResearchGate, 13 Jan. 2015.
Poe. (2024). Poe - Fast, Helpful AI Chat. Poe.com. https://poe.com/
Reddit - Dive into anything. (2022). Reddit.com. http://www.reddit.com/r/HolUp/comments/t773zo/fact/
Southkorea. (2023, June 9). How do Koreans show respect? - Namhan South Korea. Namhan South Korea. https://www.namhansouthkorea.com/how-do-koreans-show-respect/
Thomas, A. (2022, April 29). Surface Structure and Deep Structure. Anil Thomas | NLP; Anil Thomas | NLP. https://www.anilthomasnlp.com/post/nlp-surface-structure-and-deep-structure
Thompson, G. (2004). Introducing Functional Grammar. London: Arnold.
Thompson, G., & Thompson, G. (2014). Introducing Functional Grammar. In Routledge eBooks. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203785270
Wang, L. (2011). Introduction to Language Studies.
Wei, L. (2009). The bilingualism reader (P. Muysken, Ed.; 2nd Edition). London Routledge. (Original work published 2007)
Weis, S., Grande, M., Pollrich, S., Willmes, K., & Huber, W. (2001). Processing of homonyms: a functional MRI study on the separation of word forms from concepts. Cortex, 37(5), 745-749.
Woll, B., & RL Sutton-Spence. (2005). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of The Science of Language and Society.
Questions
Questions
What does grammaticalization involve?
A. Shifting focus from subject to action
B. Words evolving into grammatical elements
C. Using homonyms across different forms
D. Applying systemic functional grammar
Correct Answer: B. Words evolving into grammatical elements
In systemic functional grammar, which category reflects on experiences and represents the world?
A. Interpersonal meaning
B. Textual meaning
C. Experiential meaning
D. Grammaticalization
Correct Answer: C. Experiential meaning
Which of the following best describes the relationship between form and function in language?
A. Form and function are completely independent of each other.
B. The choice of form directly influences the intended function of a message.
C. Function is determined solely by the grammatical structure of a sentence.
D. Form is irrelevant to the meaning conveyed in communication.
Correct Answer: B. The choice of form directly influences the intended function of a message.
In the context of systemic-functional grammar, which of the following pairs correctly matches a form with its typical function?
A. Declarative sentence - to ask a question
B. Interrogative sentence - to make a statement
C. Imperative sentence - to give a command
D. Exclamative sentence - to provide information
Correct Answer: C. Imperative sentence - to give a command.
What is a significant influence on the production of non-standard grammatical and syntactical variants, as discussed in the essay?
A. Historical events
B. Age and generational changes
C. Geographic boundaries
D. Educational qualifications
Correct Answer: B. Age and generational changes
How can educators effectively address non-standard language forms in the classroom?
A. By strictly enforcing standard language rules
B. By ignoring non-standard forms entirely
C. By utilizing code-switching as a teaching tool
D. By discouraging students from using their linguistic backgrounds
Correct Answer: C. By utilizing code-switching as a teaching tool
What is not the difference between structural and functional grammar?
A. Structural grammar relies on structure while functional grammar relies on the context.
B. Structural grammar cares more about acceptability while functional grammar cares more about accuracy
C. Structural grammar views language as a static system while functional grammar views it as a growing orgasim
D. Structural grammar focuses on the past while functional grammar focuses on the present.
Correct Answer: B. Structural grammar cares more about acceptability while functional grammar cares more about accuracy
There are two claims below, identify which claim is correct.
a) Functional grammar oversimplifies the complexity of language.
b) Structural grammar doesn't have rules for how language should be constructed.
A. a) only
B. b) only
C. Both claims
D. None of the claims
Correct Answer: D. None of the claims
Which one is the one of the perspectiveSFG theory focusing on
A. Structure of sentence
B. The grammar correction in sentences
C. The time using in the sentence
D. The emotion and meaning the sentence shows
Correct Answer: D. The emotion and meaning the sentence shows
10. Which field have been mentioned can be improved by SFG theory
A. Product industry
B. Transportation industry
C. Teaching field
D. Food processing
Correct Answer: C. Teaching field
Page updated
Google Sites
Report abuse