Embedded Files
An overview of grammar explores the essential role of grammar in language and communication. Grammar encompasses the rules and structures that govern how language is formed and understood. In our investigation, we will address several key aspects: First, we will define what grammar is and its importance in language acquisition. Next, we will delve into the historical evolution of grammar, providing context to current practices. We will also examine how cultural backgrounds shape grammatical usage and how social class influences language norms. Finally, we will confront the issue of sexism in grammar, highlighting its implications for gender representation in language.Through this comprehensive exploration, we aim to illuminate the complexities of grammar and its impact on communication and identity in diverse contexts.
3.1 What is grammar?
Grammar is the set of rules and structures that govern the formation and use of language. It encompasses various elements which work together to ensure clear and effective communication. Understanding grammar is essential for both language learners and proficient speakers, as it aids in expressing ideas accurately and coherently. This topic will delve into the fundamental aspects of grammar, exploring its importance and role in shaping how we communicate in both written and spoken forms.
Figure1.1:An Ungrammatical Talk
(Image downloaded from https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-vector/misunderstanding-vector-2973716)
3.1.1 Definition of grammar
Grammar is often defined as the system of rules that govern the structure and composition of language. It is a theory of the structure of a language(Noam Chomsky) , which not only reflects how words, phrases, and sentences are constructed but also allows individuals to convey complex thoughts.( Steven Pinker).Essentially, the grammar of a language resides a speaker's grasp of established linguistic convention, including the usage of words, the sentence coherence and the sentence formation.
At its core, grammar is the description of the ways in which words can combine to make sentences. (David Crystal). The grammar guides sentence formation and connects two different parts. Grammar consists of several essential components, including phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. There are also different types of grammar such as the prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. By adhering to these rules, the meanings are expressed efficiently and comprehensively.
Language, like its users and the universe they inhabit, is dynamic, ever-changing, and constantly evolving. Through the horizontal axis, it varies across different languages and dialects. These dialects often exhibit unique grammatical structures that differentiate them from the standard form of the language such as the African English and the British dialects. Through the vertical axis, it evolves over time, which started from 19th century the traditional grammar. The intersection of time and space makes up the relatively complete grammar system.
In summary, grammar is pivotal in ensuring that language serves its primary purpose: shaping our perception of the world and indicating its essential role in communication.( Wilhelm von Humboldt).
Figure 1.2: The International Phonetic Alphabet
(Image downloaded from http://www.accentbase.com/ipa.html)
3.1.2 The components of grammar
3.1.2.1.Phonology
Phonetics explores how sounds are produced (articulatory phonetics), transmitted (acoustic phonetics), and perceived (auditory phonetics)(Henning Reetz and Allard Jongman in 2009).Phonetics is integral to various fields, such as education and language study.It is the sounds children heard that help educators to steer them in the right direction. For instance, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) provides a standardized representation of sounds.
Phonology is concerned with how the units are organized and examines how sounds interact within a particular language.(Jakobson in the 1930s).Phonology often represents phonemes abstractly—the smallest sound units that can change meaning, enabling an analysis beyond the physical sounds and deeply researching the essence of language.
The stress and intonation of a sentence are crucial elements of spoken language. The variety of the stress and intonation express multiple emotions and attitudes , sometimes there is a double meaning.For example, in the sentence "I didn’t say she stole the money," There is no need a louder voice to emphasize words but only be able to make the tone of voice rise to a high note and fall to a low one.The use of personal pronouns “I” “She” “my” emphasizes the subject of the action, giving the utterance a clear focus.The actions mentioned such as “said” “stole” reveal the implicit meaning besides the shallow words.In conclusion,proper use of the stress and intonation can enhance clarity and comprehension in a complex discussion.
Figure 1.3:One Sentence,Seven Different Meanings
(downloaded from https://magoosh.com/toefl/english-intonation-knowing-when-to-rise-and-fall/)
Figure 1.4: Misuse of the Plural Form
(Downloaded from :https://proofreadanywhere.com/grammar-pet-peeve-apostrophes/ )
3.1.2.2.Morphology
Morphology delves into two main aspects that are inflectional morphology and derivational morphology, which helps understand the formation of words and their structures relate to their meanings. The inflectional morphology involves modifying a word to express different grammatical categories, such as tense, plural and adjective comparison. It is essential to follow the right rules of inflectional morphology, otherwise it will make a stupid mistake. For example, in the figure 1.4 Smiths used an apostrophe plus “s” to make nouns plural.
Derivational morphology involves creating new words by adding prefixes or suffixes, such as adding the prefix "un-" to change the meaning to its opposite or adding the suffix "-ness" to change the adjective into a noun.
3.1.2.3.Syntax
Grammar is a set of rules that can generate the structure of sentences in a language. (N. Chomsky), specifically how words combine to form a complete sentence. It encompasses the sentence structure, phrase structure and the complex relationships between sentences.
Syntax also contains various sentence types which means using the same words but different tones can lead to diverse meanings. Transformational grammar emphasizes the innate grammatical structures that underlie all human languages.
(N. Chomsky)
3.1.2.4.Semantics
Semantics primarily deals with the relationship between words and their meanings. When the same words have different meanings, this phenomenon is called homonyms. For example, "bat" as a flying mammal and "bat" as a sports equipment.When different words have the same meaning, this concept is known as synonymy.
Figure 1.5: the Same Words but Different Meanings
(Downed from:https://teachsimple.com/product/homograph-and-multiple-meaning-words-activity-packet-and-worksheets)
Figure 1.6: Different Words but Same Meaning
(Downloaded from
Figure 1.7 :The Misuse Of Double Negative.
(Downloaded from:https://www.panterapress.com.au/rules-made-breaking-editors-perspective-grammar)
3.1.3 Types of grammar
Grammar can be organized into several classifications, with each type offering different intents and perspectives on the use of lan›guage.
3.1.3.1.Prescriptive grammar
It is summarized from “dead” languages like Latin which has a long history.Therefore, the prescriptive grammar roles as a model to provide guidance on "correct" usage in English. (Henry Watson Fowler).For examples, a rule that should avoid using double negatives like the figure below. We don’t say "I didn’t do nothing.", but change the “nothing” to “anything”.
Video 1.8 :Same Line Different Films—What Are You Talking About?
(Youtube video at https://youtu.be/VKRg-CNnock?si=PCplm5wHHFWahCwx)
3.1.3.2.Descriptive grammar
Descriptive grammar is contrarily used to describe reality from authentic language data from living language. Since the language is constantly changing, fluid and organic, there are some regional English dialects and idioms that led to the descriptive grammar.
For example, an everyday conversation "What are you talking about?".As we know, it is not allowed to end sentences with prepositions in prescriptive grammar.
3.1.3.3.Transformational-Generative Grammar
Transformational grammar emphasizes how sentences can be transformed into different structures while retaining the same meaning. (N.Chomsky).It is also a stage of the development of grammar.Chomsky gives "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" as an example of a nonsense sentence, an utterance that makes sense grammatically, but is semantically nonsensical.
Figure 1.10: Saying Please Under The Functional Grammar
(Image downloaded from:Saying Please Cartoons and Comics - funny pictures from CartoonStock)
3.1.3.4.Functional Grammar
Functional grammar examines how grammatical structures serve specific functions in communication, such as requesting, informing, or commanding. For example, the funny image below shows that boy’s complaint about his mother’s request without “please”. The functional grammar goes beyond its grammatical structure but conveys a polite request.
Figure 1.11 :The Complex Sentences Cause The Complex Meeting
(Image downloaded from Sentence Structure Cartoons and Comics - funny pictures from CartoonStock)
3.1.4 The structure of grammar
3.1.4.1.Grammar Structures
Basically, there are three sentence structures: simple sentence structure, compound structure and complex structure.The simple sentence typically follows the Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) format. For example, "She (Subject) loves (Verb) flowers (Object)." The compound sentence joins two independent clauses using coordinating conjunctions like "and" or "but”,as in “Independent Clause (I wanted to go for a walk) + Coordinating Conjunction (but) + Independent Clause (it started to rain)”.The complex sentence always use the main clause pluses subordinate clause(s).After the invention of complex sentence, people will modify and beautify their words like the image below.
Figure 1.12:Phrases
(Downloaded from: English Idioms: Food - More fun cartoons to learn English: Learn English Online | English idioms, Idioms, Idioms posters)
3.1.4.2 Phrase Structures
Phrases are groups of words that act as a single unit within a sentence. There are various phrase structures to make the whole article informative and complete, such as the Noun phrases (NP), Verb phrases (VP), Prepositional phrases (PP) and Adverbial Phrase(AP).It is because of these phrases that the language is more vivid.Also the phrases can compose the idioms like the image says:top banana, bad apple,sour grapes.
3.1.4.3.Rules of Grammar
Grammar rules ensure clarity and coherence in communication. Here are some fundamental rules of grammar such as the subject-verb agreement, proper use of tenses,the use of articles and so on. For example, "The cat runs." vs. "The cats run."
Figure 1.13: "The cat runs." vs. "The cats run."
(Images downloaded from padlet)
Figure 1.14: The Love Story Between Couple Mantis
(Image downloaded from animals-praying_mantises-grammarians-grammar_nazis-grammar-dies-kwan730_low.jpg)
There is an example of the proper use of tenses in figure 1.14. A couple of mantis are having an interesting conversation. The male mantic is talking about the promise of love while the female mantic is talking about the truth of childbearing and lives.
3.2 The Role of Grammar in Language Acquisition
Grammar plays a crucial role in language acquisition as it provides the structural framework within which words are combined to form meaningful sentences. It encompasses the rules governing syntax, morphology, and phonology, enabling learners to understand and produce coherent speech and writing. Grammar helps learners distinguish between correct and incorrect sentence structures, aids in the comprehension of complex ideas, and facilitates effective communication.
Additionally, a strong grasp of grammar enhances reading comprehension and critical thinking skills, contributing to overall cognitive development. I divide this part into four prompts: Foundation for Communication, Cognitive Development, Error Correction and Feedback and Cultural and Social Context.
3.2.1 Foundation for Communication
Figure 2.1: Put the Subject, Verb and Object in the Right Order.
(Image downloaded from https://m.51wendang.com/doc/a8a64c7a37eba3587cc9985e/6)
3.2.1.1 Sentence Structure and Syntax:
Grammar rules determine how words are put together to make sentences. It’s helpful for learners who write clear and meaningful texts when they have mastered and followed these grammar rules. For example, putting the subject, verb, and object in the right order in English is crucial for understanding.
3.2.1.2 Conveying Accurate Meaning:
Correct grammar usage vouches for that the intended message is accurately conveyed. Misunderstandings can be led by misuse of grammar. For instance, incorrect tense usage can alter the time reference of an action, resulting in confusion.
Figure 2.2: Choose Proper Tense.
(Image downloaded from Wrong tense! Fix the incorrect verbs (3 tenses) | Teaching Resources (tes.com))
3.2.1.3 Complex Ideas and Relationships:
Grammar facilitates the articulation of intricate concepts and the interconnections among various sentence components. By employing conjunctions, embedding subordinate clauses, and adhering to precise punctuation, communicators can weave together ideas, thereby conveying more nuanced and sophisticated messages.
Figure 2.3: Punctuation Marks Convey Messages.
(Image downloaded from End Of Sentence Punctuation Examples (windows.net))
3.2.1.4 Functional Use of Language:
Diverse grammatical structures fulfill distinct communicative functions. For example, the formulation of questions, commands, statements, and exclamations adheres to particular grammatical guidelines. Mastery of these rules enables learners to employ language aptly across a range of situations when inquiring for details, issuing directives, conveying information, or articulating feelings.
Figure 2.4: Types of Sentences.
(Image downloaded from Made Whimsically | Teachers Pay Teachers)
In conclusion, grammar plays a fundamental role in crafting sentences that are correct, meaningful, and suitable for diverse communicative contexts. It equips learners with the essential abilities to convey their thoughts precisely and comprehend others, establishing the foundation for effective communication in other languages.
3.2.2 Cognitive Development
Figure 2.5: How to Form Past Tense Verbs in English.
(Image downloaded from Distance Learning Past, Present, and Future Verb Tenses [Anchor Chart] (teacherspayteachers.com))
3.2.2.1 Rule Application and Generalization:
Learning grammar entails comprehending and applying specific rules to construct or interpret sentences. The process of using these rules and generalizing them enhances logical reasoning and problem-solving abilities. For instance, once a learner grasps how to form past tense verbs in English, they can apply this understanding to new verbs they encounter.
3.2.2.2 Memory and Recall:
The mastery of grammar requires the memorization of numerous rules, exceptions, and vocabulary items, which can enhance memory and recall capabilities. The act of storing and retrieving grammatical structures amplifies the brain's proficiency in information retention and retrieval.
Figure 2.6: Memory and Recall.
(Image downloaded from Retrieval of information strengthens learning | Center for Educational Innovation (umn.edu))
3.2.2.3 Attention to Detail:
Mastering grammar mandates a keen eye for detail, encompassing the precise use of articles, prepositions, or verb forms. Such meticulous attention fosters an overarching vigilance and accuracy in diverse cognitive functions.
Figure 2.8: Pay Attention to prepositions.
(Image downloaded from Rosie’s Walk on, in and Under Preposition Cards (SB10130) - SparkleBox)
Figure 2.7: A Keen Eye for Articles.
(Image downloaded from 7 Engaging Activities For Teaching The Correct Usage Of Articles - Number Dyslexia)
3.2.2.4 Abstract Thinking:
Comprehending grammatical principles often entails abstract reasoning, as learners must discern how rules operate across varied contexts and exceptions. This capacity for abstract thought is vital for advanced cognitive activities, including critical analysis and problem-solving.
Figure 2.9: Abstract Thinking.
(Image downloaded from Blog | Appfire )
In essence, the pursuit of grammar knowledge profoundly nurtures cognitive advancement by augmenting rule application acumen, memory efficiency, meticulous observation, and abstract thinking. These cognitive enhancements transcend linguistic education, underpinning holistic intellectual progression and adeptness at tackling complex problems.
3.2.3 Error Correction and Feedback
Figure 2.10: Self-Monitoring and Awareness.
(Image downloaded from Essay on Self Awareness: Expert Advice Revealed (educba.com))
3.2.3.1 Self-Monitoring and Awareness:
A comprehensive grasp of grammar empowers learners to vigilantly observe their linguistic output. This heightened awareness enables them to recognize grammatical inconsistencies and intuitively discern when their expression does not align with standard usage. Such self-regulation serves as the initial phase in a cycle of self-improvement, whereby learners autonomously adjust and enhance their language proficiency.
3.2.3.2 Understanding Feedback:
When learners are furnished with feedback from teachers, peers, or digital learning platforms, a solid foundation in grammar facilitates the effective interpretation and implementation of this guidance. It ensures that feedback is not merely received but also assimilated and utilized to foster improvement.
Figure 2.11: Understanding Feedback.
(Image downloaded from Getting started with Assessment for Learning (cambridge-community.org.uk))
3.2.3.3 Error Analysis
Mastery of grammar equips learners with the ability to systematically scrutinize their own errors. They can classify mistakes into categories and concentrate on specific areas requiring enhancement. This focused strategy streamlines the learning trajectory, rendering it both more efficient and impactful.
Figure 2.12: Error Analysis.
(Image downloaded from My Favorite "No" - using error analysis in math class - creative classroom tools)
Figure 2.13: Find the Error.
(Image downloaded from Error Analysis: Multiplication by Raise the Rigor | TPT (teacherspayteachers.com))
3.2.3.4 Learning from Mistakes
Errors constitute an inherent aspect of language acquisition. Grammar offers a structured framework within which learners can comprehend and learn from these missteps. For instance, a misuse of "goed" instead of the correct "went" highlights the importance of understanding irregular verb conjugations in English, thereby aiding learners in rectifying and internalizing accurate forms.
Figure 2.14: Learning from Mistakes.
(Image downloaded from 7 steps to learn from our mistakes | Valentines Learning)
In a nutshell, a profound understanding of grammar fosters self-correction capabilities and effective processing of external feedback among learners. This is pivotal for linguistic advancement, as it progressively refines language skills over time, ultimately culminating in enhanced mastery and fluency.
3.2.4 Cultural and Social Context
3.2.4.1 Idiomatic Expressions:
Numerous idiomatic expressions and proverbs possess distinctive grammatical structures and are deeply rooted in cultural contexts. Comprehending the grammatical foundations of these expressions facilitates learners' understanding of their meanings and cultural connotations. For example, the English idiom "kick the bucket," denoting death, can be accurately comprehended and employed through an appreciation of its grammatical intricacies.
3.2.4.2 Pragmatic Competence:
Grammar plays a pivotal role in enhancing pragmatic competence, which refers to the skillful use of language across diverse social scenarios. This encompasses mastering the art of making requests, offering compliments, or extending apologies with propriety.
Figure 2.16: The development of pragmatic competence.
(Image downloaded from: 3 The entire continuum of the development of pragmatic competence... | Download Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net))
Figure 2.17: Intercultural Communication.
(Image downloaded from Premium Vector | Multicultural kids holding hands together around the world. Happy Children's day. (freepik.com))
Figure 2.18: Intercultural Communication.
(Image downloaded from Clipart Orang Menyapu | Free Images at Clker.com - vector clip art online, royalty free & public domain)
3.2.4.3 Intercultural Communication:
Knowledge of grammar allows learners to analyze their own errors systematically. They can categorize mistakes and focus on specific areas for improvement. This targeted approach makes the learning process more efficient and effective.
Figure 2.19: Language Etiquette.
(Image downloaded fromIntercultural Communication - definition, meaning and examples - Glossary - Lectera educational platform)
3.2.4.4 Language Etiquette:
Every culture harbors its unique language etiquette, encompassing modes of address, sentence structuring for formal and informal situations, and employing grammar to convey respect or familiarity. Acquainting oneself with these grammatical subtleties enables learners to communicate more adeptly and suitably within the confines of that cultural framework.
In a word, a comprehensive knowledge of grammar fosters learners to have the ability to navigate the intricate subtleties and nuances inherent in a language, encapsulating both cultural underpinnings and societal norms embedded within linguistic constructs. Such insight is indispensable for effectual communication across a spectrum of social milieus and cultural landscapes.
3.3 History of Grammar
The history of grammar traces the evolution of language from ancient scholars like Panini, who systematically analyzed Sanskrit, to Greek and Roman grammarians. Initially focused on prescriptive rules, grammar has shifted towards descriptive frameworks that embrace linguistic diversity. This evolution highlights the foundational rules of language and the cultural contexts that shape them. Understanding the history of grammar is essential for appreciating its role in contemporary communication and the dynamic nature of language.
3.3.1 Ancient Origins of Grammar
3.3.1.1 Contributions of Pāṇini
The study of grammar has deep historical roots, tracing back to the ancient civilizations of India and Greece. One of the earliest known grammatical texts is from ancient India, authored by Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini, the man shown in Figure 3.1, who lived around the 4th century BCE, composed the “Ashtadhyayi”, and is also called “The Father of Linguistic”.
The study of grammar has deep historical roots, tracing back to the ancient civilizations of India and Greece. One of the earliest known grammatical texts is from ancient India, authored by Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini, the man shown in Figure 3.1, who lived around the 4th century BCE, composed the “Ashtadhyayi”, and is also called “The Father of Linguistic”.
Figure 3.1: Pāṇini is called "The Father of Linguistics”
(Image download from: https://vajiram-prod.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/Panini_12f906d007.jpeg)
Figure 3.2: A page of Ashtadhyayi manuscript
(Image download from: https://archive.org/details/PaniniAshtadhyayiAlm22Shl f55050DevanagariVyakarnam/page/n7/mode/2up)
As the manuscript is shown in Figure 3.2, Pāṇini's "Ashtadhyayi" is a comprehensive description of Sanskrit grammar, consisting of approximately 4,000 rules. This work is not only significant for its linguistic precision but also for its influence on subsequent linguistic studies. Pāṇini's methods were so advanced that they are still referenced in modern linguistic theory (Kiparsky, 1994).
3.3.1.2 Greek Philosophers and the Study of Grammar
In ancient languages such as Ancient Greek and Latin, grammar was already structuring. In ancient Greece, the exploration of language structure and function began with the Sophists and philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, with an AI-generated image in Figure 3.3 shows them researching on grammatical works. However, it is was the Stoic philosophers who first systematically studied grammar and their work laid the groundwork for later Roman scholars like Varro (Figure 3.4), who further developed grammatical studies. Aristotle's work on rhetoric and poetics also built the foundation for later grammatical theories. (Kennedy, 1994).
Figure 3.3: Greek philosophers studying grammar
(Image generated by Padlet)
Figure 3.4: Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro
(Image download from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Marco_Terenzio_Varrone.jpg/440px-Marco_Terenzio_Varrone.jpg)
The Greeks were particularly interested in the parts of speech, syntax, and the philosophy of language. For example in Ancient Greek grammar, the use of different verb forms to indicate tense, mood, and voice. For example, the verb "λύω" (to loosen) can appear in various forms such as "λύω" (I loosen), "ἔλυσα" (I loosened), and "λύσομαι" (I will loosen). The grammatical development of Ancient Greek later influenced Roman and medieval scholars.
3.3.1.3 The Impact of Early Grammarians
The significance of grammar in ancient civilizations is extremely significant, it was not merely a tool for communication but a subject of intellectual inquiry and a means of preserving sacred texts and cultural heritage. The meticulous work of these early grammarians set the stage for the systematic study of language that would continue to evolve over the centuries.
3.3.2 Grammar Developments during Medieval
3.3.2.1 Emphasis on Grammar in Medieval EducationIn the medieval period, grammar became a cornerstone of education in Europe. The work of Roman grammarians, such as Donatus and Priscian, was foundational. Donatus' "Ars Minor" shown in Figure 3.5 and Priscian's "Institutiones Grammaticae" were standard textbooks in medieval schools (Law, 1997).
Figure 3.5: A page of Donatus' "Ars Minor" manuscript
(Image download from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Ars_minor.jpg/406px-Ars_minor.jpg)
3.3.2.2 Role of Latin and Preservation of Texts
These works focused on grammar of Latin, which was the lingua franca of educated Europeans and the language of the church during the Middle Ages. Figure 3.6 is an AI generated image showing monks in monasteries hand-copying Latin grammar books, and the preservation and copying of these texts not only ensured their survival and dissemination, but it also kept the study of grammar consistent throughout the Middle Ages.
These works focused on grammar of Latin, which was the lingua franca of educated Europeans and the language of the church during the Middle Ages. Figure 3.6 is an AI generated image showing monks in monasteries hand-copying Latin grammar books, and the preservation and copying of these texts not only ensured their survival and dissemination, but it also kept the study of grammar consistent throughout the Middle Ages.
Figure 3.6: Monks from Medieval times hand-copying Latin grammar books in monasteries
(Image generated by Padlet)
(Image generated by Padlet)
3.3.2.3 The Trivium Curriculum The medieval curriculum, known as the trivium, a curriculum consisting of grammar, rhetoric, and logic. This educational framework was essential in the education system of medieval Europe and for the intellectual development of scholars. The education of grammar begins to develop, as Video 3.7 shows that elite boys who are aged between 10 to 15 were chosen from the Medieval times to study Latin grammar and literature in classrooms.
Video 3.7: Medieval Grammar School (23:56-24:41)
(Youtube video from: https://youtu.be/mNYau2cuxvE?si=PG0LmYyJGrXOwxE0)
3.3.2.4 Development of Latin GrammarLatin grammar was highly structured during the time, such as the different use of cases like nominative, accusative and genitive were used to indicate the function of nouns in a sentence. For instance, "puella" (girl) in the nominative case becomes "puellam" in the accusative case. Moreover, this period also shapes grammar into something that was not just about learning to speak and write correctly but was also seen to understand and interpret sacred texts, particularly the Bible (Hunt, 1991).
3.3.2.5 Development of Old English GrammarMedieval grammar's impact reached beyond Latin. Even though Latin remained the language of scholarship, local languages also became more prominent, scholars started to apply grammatical principles to their native tongues. For example, the use of inflections in Old English was prominent. The word "strong" could change form based on case: "stær" (nominative) or "stæres" (genitive). This era also saw the creation of glossaries and dictionaries, aiding in language standardization and learning. (Baldwin, 1982).
3.3.2.5 Development of Old English GrammarMedieval grammar's impact reached beyond Latin. Even though Latin remained the language of scholarship, local languages also became more prominent, scholars started to apply grammatical principles to their native tongues. For example, the use of inflections in Old English was prominent. The word "strong" could change form based on case: "stær" (nominative) or "stæres" (genitive). This era also saw the creation of glossaries and dictionaries, aiding in language standardization and learning. (Baldwin, 1982).
3.3.3 Standardization of Grammar in The Renaissance
Video 3.8: A Man Demonstrating How to Use The Gutenberg Printing Press (0:20-1:06)
(Youtube video from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yeikqw0kyqI)3.3.3.1 Impact of the Printing PressThe Renaissance was a period of revival and standardization in many fields, including grammar. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century played a crucial role in this process, and Video 3.8 shows a man who is able to print two pages of text in just forty seconds by using The Gutenberg Printing Press.
With the mass production of books, grammar texts became more widely available. This democratization of knowledge allowed for greater consistency and standardization in language education (Eisenstein, 1979).
3.3.3.2 Influence of William LilyIn England, William Lily produced influential works such as "A Short Introduction of Grammar," which became the standard Latin grammar textbook used in schools in the 16th century. His work was endorsed by Henry VIII and remained in use for centuries (Mack, 2012). In Figure 3.9, the front page of the book is shown, and parts of speech are categorized into terms like "noun", "pronoun", “verb” and “participle”, indicating that scholars began to apply Latin grammatical rules to English and the influence that Latin grammar had on English language.
3.3.3.3 Standardizaton of Vernacular GrammarThe Renaissance also saw the development of vernacular grammar studies, as scholars codified and standardize the rules of their native languages. Due to that, grammar books for languages such as English, French, and German were developed, leading to the establishment of the foundation for current linguistic research.
3.3.3.3 Standardizaton of Vernacular GrammarThe Renaissance also saw the development of vernacular grammar studies, as scholars codified and standardize the rules of their native languages. Due to that, grammar books for languages such as English, French, and German were developed, leading to the establishment of the foundation for current linguistic research.
Figure 3.9: The front page "A Short Introduction of Grammar" by William Lily
(Image download from: https://www.google.com.hk/books/edition/A_short_introduction_to_grammar_by_W_Lil/DcQDAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1)
(Image download from: https://www.google.com.hk/books/edition/A_short_introduction_to_grammar_by_W_Lil/DcQDAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1)
3.3.3.4 Impact of standardization in The RenaissanceThis period was marked by an increasing interest in the classical texts of Greece and Rome. Scholars sought to revive and emulate the linguistic precision of these ancient works. The focus on standardization extended to spelling, punctuation, and syntax, laying the groundwork for the modern grammatical rules we use today (Watts, 2008).
3.3.4 Modern Linguistics and Grammar
3.3.4.1 Advancements in Grammar StudiesThe 19th and 20th centuries witnessed significant advancements in the study of grammar, influenced by the rise of modern linguistics. This era were transformative periods for the study of grammar. Grammar was largely prescriptive, focusing on establishing rules for correct language usage, paving the way for a more analytical and descriptive approach to understanding language.
Figure 3.10: Ferdinand de Saussure
(Image download from: https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2F483538a/MediaObjects/41586_2012_Article_BF483538a_Figa_HTML.jpg)
3.3.4.2 Ferdinand de Saussure and StructuralismFigure 3.10 shows the portrait of Ferdinand de Saussure, his work laid the foundation for structuralism, emphasizing the relationships between elements in a language. Saussure argued that language is a structured system of signs, where each sign consists of a 'signifier' (the form of a word) and a 'signified' (the concept it represents). His ideas shifted the focus from the historical development of languages to the underlying structures that govern language use.
3.3.4.3 Noam Chomsky and Generative GrammarNoam Chomsky's theory of generative grammar, which emerged in the mid-20th century, transformed the discipline by highlighting the inherent mental structures that facilitate the learning of language. In Figure 3.11, a tree diagram of Noam Chomsky’s generative grammar was shown, representing the syntactic structure of a simple sentence “The man will hit the ball”. It is composed of S(the sentence level), NP(noun phrase), VP(verb phrase), Det(determiner), N(noun), Aux(auxiliary verb) and V(verb).
Chomsky proposed that all human languages share a common underlying structure, which he termed "universal grammar". This theory suggested that the ability to learn language is hard-wired into the brain, enabling children to rapidly acquire complex linguistic systems, and it has had significant consequences for both theoretical and applied linguistics.
Chomsky proposed that all human languages share a common underlying structure, which he termed "universal grammar". This theory suggested that the ability to learn language is hard-wired into the brain, enabling children to rapidly acquire complex linguistic systems, and it has had significant consequences for both theoretical and applied linguistics.
Figure 3.11: An example of Noam Chomsky’s generative grammar tree diagram
(Image download from: https://cdn.britannica.com/51/2151-004-4BBDF109/description-sentence-ball-man-phrase-structure-grammar-rules.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop)
Figure 3.12: A meme to represent the change of approach in modern grammar
(image generated online)
(image generated online)
3.3.4.4 Expanding the Scope of Grammar
In addition to theoretical advancements, the 20th century saw the development of new methodologies for studying grammar. Descriptive linguistics, for example, focuses on documenting and analyzing the grammatical structures of languages as they are used by native speakers. This approach has been particularly valuable for the study of lesser-known and endangered languages. Figure 3.12 shows the shift from a prescriptive to a descriptive approach, and it allowed linguists to investigate how language is used in real-world contexts.
3.3.4.5 Impact of Modern Linguistics on GrammarThe impact of modern linguistics on grammar extends beyond academia. It has influenced language teaching, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence, among other fields. The study of grammar today is a dynamic and interdisciplinary endeavor, building on centuries of inquiry and innovation.
3.4 How Different Cultural Backgrounds Affect the Usage of Grammar
Language is such a multilayered phenomenon that elaborates the diversity of human culture and interaction. The study of languages brings diverse complex issues into the way we relate to one another, from subtle code-switching and dialectal variation through to the deeper outcomes of pragmatic competence and language contact on grammatical structures. This introduction opens up the exploration of the interplay between language, culture, and grammar across different linguistic contexts.
3.4.1 Code-Switching and Code-Mixing
3.4.1.1 Definition and Examples
Code-switching involves the use of two or more languages or dialects interchangeably in a single conversation or utterance. Whereas in code-mixing, elements from more than one language are combined into one sentence or phrase. These phenomena happen in multilingual communities, and most of the time they are culturally influenced.
Figure 4.1 : Multilingual Conversation Illustration)
Video 4.1: Code-Switching: Jumping Between Two Different Languages
(Video Downloaded from Youtube: https://youtu.be/7Na4UvRIhu4?si=94kZMvk8X3hNkiCL )
(Video Downloaded from Youtube: https://youtu.be/7Na4UvRIhu4?si=94kZMvk8X3hNkiCL )
3.4.1.2 Examples from Different Cultures
In India, where bilingualism and multilingualism are common, speakers often switch between Hindi and English within a single conversation. For instance, a speaker might say, "I went to the market aur wahan par mujhe ek acchi book mili" (I went to the market and there I found a good book), seamlessly blending Hindi and English (Kachru, 1983).
Figure 4.2 : Delhi is One of the Most Multicultural Cities in the World
(Image downloaded from https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20170512-the-asian-city-that-caters-to-everyone )
In the United States, among Spanish-speaking communities, code-switching between English and Spanish is frequent. A sentence like "I need to finish my homework antes de que sea tarde" (I need to finish my homework before it gets late) illustrates this practice (Poplack, 1980).
3.4.1.3 Scholarly Insight
According to Myers-Scotton (1993), code-switching serves as a communicative strategy that reflects the speaker's cultural identity and social affiliations. This practice is not random but follows specific grammatical rules from the involved languages.
3.4.1.4 Impact on Grammar
Cultural background may affect the individual's style of switching or mixing codes; hence, grammatical structure is different. For example, in some of the cultures, code-switching can be very fluent and frequent; therefore, mixed grammatical rules develop that are unique to the community alone. Grammatical rules governing code-switching often reflect a deep understanding of the syntactic structure and cultural nuances of the two languages.
3.4.2 Dialectal Variations
3.4.2.1 Definition and Examples
Dialects are regional varieties or social classes of language that differ in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Factors that contribute to the emergence of dialects involve aspects of culture like geography, history, and social interaction.
Video 4.2: Varieties of Language (Downloaded from Youtube: https://youtu.be/QHhOFZgoono?si=4vN6bgJWWQTnUlq4 )
3.4.2.2 Examples from Different Cultures
In the United Kingdom, there are noticeable grammatical differences between British English dialects. For example, in Yorkshire, people might say "He were going to the shop" instead of the standard "He was going to the shop," reflecting a regional grammatical variation (Trudgill, 1999).
Figure 4.3: Yorkshire Pub
(Image downloaded from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/travel/a-tasting-tour-of-yorkshires-beers-and-ales.html)
In China, the Mandarin spoken in Beijing has distinct grammatical features compared to the Mandarin spoken in Taiwan. For instance, the use of the particle "le" to indicate a completed action is more prevalent in Beijing Mandarin (Li & Thompson, 1981).
Figure 4.4 : The Languages Spoken in China
(Image downloaded from https://www.thatsmags.com/china/post/14018/this-map-shows-all-languages-spoken-china)3.4.2.3 Scholarly Insight
Labov (1972) argues that dialectal differences are a reflection of cultural diversity and social stratification. He emphasizes that each dialect has its own set of grammatical rules that are just as valid as those of the standard language.
3.4.2.4 Impact on Grammar
Cultural backgrounds also influence the salience of dialectal features within a community. For example, AAVE has grammatical constructions that are quite different from those of SAE, including invariant "be" and double negatives, which are steeped in the cultural history of African Americans. In fact, the grammatical structures of AAVE are not errors at all but rather systematic and rule-governed, hence reflecting the cultural ancestry of its speakers.
3.4.3 Pragmatic Competence and Politeness Strategies
3.4.3.1 Definition and Examples
Pragmatic competence is a sub-element of communicative competence, referring to linguistic adequacy or appropriateness within a given social context-to which no doubt the use of politeness strategies certainly belongs. These politeness strategies vary strongly across cultures and influence grammatical choices.
Video 4.3 : Pragmatic Competence ( Downloaded from Youtube : https://youtu.be/Jkprvorq9KQ?si=zYnacHacUIYTGKbZ )
3.4.3.2 Examples from Different Cultures
In Japanese culture, politeness is paramount, and this is reflected in the language's grammar. For example, Japanese uses various levels of politeness, which are grammatically marked. The verb "to eat" can be "taberu" (informal), "tabemasu" (polite), or "itadakimasu" (very polite) (Ide, 1989).
Figure 4.5 : formal business setting in Japan
(Image downloaded from https://clients.stepup.one/blog/japanese-business-culture-etiquette )
Figure 4.6 : Business Manners & Etiquette in Japan
(Image downloaded from https://blog.gaijinpot.com/how-to-address-people-in-japanese/ )
(Image downloaded from https://blog.gaijinpot.com/how-to-address-people-in-japanese/ )
Figure 4.7 : Etiquette in Japan
(Image downloaded from
https://mai-ko.com/travel/culture-in-japan/manners-in-japan/business-etiquette-in-japan/ )
In contrast, in German culture, the use of formal and informal pronouns ("Sie" vs. "du") is a key aspect of politeness. This distinction impacts grammatical structures, such as verb conjugation and word order (Brown & Levinson, 1987).
Figure 4.8 : A casual conversation in Germany
(Image downloaded from https://deutsch.wtf/small-talk-in-german-what-and-how-to-talk-to-a-stranger/ )
3.4.3.3 Scholarly Insight
Brown and Levinson (1987) propose that politeness strategies are universal but are realized differently in various cultures. These strategies influence grammatical constructions, such as the use of indirect speech acts, honorifics, and formality levels.
3.4.3.4 Impact on Grammar
The ways in which speakers construct polite requests, offers, and refusals are culturally conventionalized. Such cultural conventions are then grammaticalized. For example, Japanese culture holds politeness as a virtue; as a result, the use of honorifics and indirectness is highly elaborated, and grammaticized in Japanese. This focus on politeness within the culture itself is captured by the very complex system of honorifics, or forms of politeness, in Japanese grammar.
3.4.4 Language Contact and Borrowing
3.4.4.1 Definition and Examples
Language contact occurs when speakers of different languages interact, leading to borrowing of words, phrases, and grammatical structures. This process is influenced by cultural exchanges and can result in significant grammatical changes.
Video 4.4 : Linguistic Borrowing & Language Contact ( Downloaded from Youtube : https://youtu.be/V9AA1KI6HfI?si=G_rPv9OjyY8tvGc2 )
3.4.4.2 Examples from Different Cultures
In Singapore, the contact between English, Malay, Chinese, and Tamil has resulted in a unique creole known as Singlish. Singlish incorporates grammatical elements from all these languages, such as the use of "lah" for emphasis and the omission of articles, which is influenced by Chinese grammar (Gupta, 1994).
Figure 4.10 :West African Languages
(Images generated by Padlet)
In the Caribbean, the interaction between European languages and African languages has led to the creation of creole languages. For example, Jamaican Patois has grammatical structures influenced by English and West African languages, such as the use of reduplication for emphasis (e.g., "walk-walk" for "walk around") (Patrick, 1999).
Figure 4.11 : Singapore- a Multicultural City
(Image downloaded from https://honeykidsasia.com/cultures-in-singapore/ )
3.4.4.3 Scholarly Insight
Thomason and Kaufman (1988) highlight that language contact often leads to structural borrowing, where grammatical features from one language are incorporated into another. This phenomenon is particularly evident in pidgin and creole languages, which emerge in multicultural contact zones.
3.4.4.4 Impact on Grammar
Cultural contact assists in the borrowing of grammatical elements that finally create new grammatical rules. For example, the influence of English on Indian languages has introduced several English grammatical structures into Hinglish, the hybrid language spoken in India. Grammatical borrowing, therefore, reflects cultural blending and adjustment in multilingual societies.
3.5 How Different Social Classes Affect the Usage of Grammar
3.5.1 Grammar Usage Across Social Classes
3.5.1.1 People from Different Backgrounds
People who are less privileged, living lower-middle-class lives or in poverty, fight daily to access education where standard grammar is taught (Power et al, 2003). They are quite used to “prescriptive” grammar, the norms of language typically learned in school, official settings, and the workplace.
Figure 5.1: Prescriptive grammar examples
(Image downloaded from https://noharmspilt.com/2015/10/09/descriptive-vs-prescriptive-grammar/)
3.5.1.2 Ways of Using Grammar
In contrast, terms like globalization and estrangement become stand-ins for racism and sexism when localized social encounters reveal opportunities where native-born citizens must compete with newcomers who may know either more or less based on economic class history (Bow, 2021). They might speak regional dialects or use more colloquial, non-standard forms of grammar. But linguistically, these varieties are just as legitimate, even if stigmatized in broader society.
The way it’s used often affects different groups in diverse ways. For instance, non-standard grammar—while systematically valid—can trigger bias, especially in formal settings where standardized language is expected. Individuals who speak in dialects or who use non-standard forms may be perceived as less educated or professional, regardless of their actual knowledge or competence. This linguistic prejudice disproportionately impacts marginalized communities, reinforcing social divides. Bailey(1998) mentioned that at the same time, those who speak in “proper” grammar, often tied to dominant groups, can benefit from unearned advantages. Thus, grammar becomes not just a tool for communication but also a social marker that can perpetuate inequality depending on the audience’s perceptions and biases.
Figure 5.2: Gen Alpha Slang spread through the social media nowadays
(Image downloaded from https://www.stndigital.com/blog/gen-alpha-vocabulary/)
Grammar has played a significant role in shaping the slang used by Gen Alpha, a generation growing up in the age of social media, rapid technological shifts, and digital communication. Unlike traditional grammar rules taught in schools, the language of Gen Alpha is highly flexible, often breaking conventional standards to adapt to the fast-paced nature of online conversations. Slang is not only concise but also visually expressive, incorporating abbreviations, emojis, and acronyms that convey meaning quickly and efficiently.
Video 5.3: Parents are confused to the Gen Alpha Slang
(Downloaded from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdJ4HFbM9tA)
3.5.1.3 Code-Switching
Gardner‐Chloros (2020) conclude that people from lower social classes learn code-switching, possessing the ability to shift from informal and colloquial grammar to something more formal. This is particularly applicable in real-life situations such as work environments where a standard form of grammar is expected.
Figure 5.4: Code-switching Example of Spainese and English
(Image downloaded from https://bilingualismresearch.blog/tag/code-mixing/)
3.5.2 Access to Formal Education
3.5.2.1 Upper Classes:
Flores (2017) concludes that wealthier families often have access to higher-quality education, private schools, and tutoring. This influences their language, bringing them closer to formal English grammar, helping them become more proficient in the 'King's English' (formal British English, historically associated with royalty and the elite).
Figure 5.5: Grammar School in 1930s (Source from: https://theconversation.com/grammar-schools-have-a-long-history-of-being-dominatedby-middle-class-children-64198)
3.5.3 Lawyer Language (Legalese)
3.5.3.1 Legalese
Law has traditionally been seen as a profession for the wealthy or those able to attend the best schools. Legal language (legalese) is known for its complex, formal, and often archaic grammar. Lawyers use precise terminology and syntax to avoid ambiguity, making legal texts incomprehensible to those without legal training (Wydick & Sloan, 2005).
Figure 5.7: The difference between the plain language and legal language
(Source from: https://justiceinnovation.law.stanford.edu/plain-language-legal-design/)
3.5.3.2 How the process of legal language
This reflects a societal divide between those who can understand legal language and those who cannot afford to. Its impenetrable complexity often serves to obscure processes, with the intention that people without legal resources can be coerced or intimidated, perpetuating class divides (Lewis, 1998).
Legal drafting is often about power, where control over formal, technical language (seen in contracts or court orders) signifies status and competence, traditionally associated with the elite.
Video 5.8: Understanding the legal terms
(Source from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=FHj8J_UTfc8)
Figure 5.9: History of RP
(Source:https://www.britannica.com/topic/Received-Pronunciation)
3.5.4 The King's English” (Formal English)
3.5.4.1 The King’s English
The King's English' (or sometimes 'The Queen's English') generally refers to the 'standard' or 'received' form of British English, historically linked to the British monarchy, aristocracy, and educated elite. This is also called Received Pronunciation (RP), a prestigious variety of English from the mid-19th century onward (Wales, 1994). It became a model of eloquence and clarity, followed by royalty, upper-class society, and institutions like Oxford and Cambridge. figures such as King George VI (famous for overcoming a stutter) and Queen Elizabeth II added prestige to this version of English.
3.5.4.2 RP affects the daily life
McArthur (1999) claimed that learning 'The King's English' could serve as a ladder or weapon for social mobility. People from working-class backgrounds who adopted RP or a similar standard English could climb the social ladder by blending in with the upper class. On the other hand, those who maintained strong regional accents often faced discrimination, limiting their advancement.
RP was the standard for British broadcasters for much of the 20th century. For example, BBC presenters had to use RP to ensure that their English was easily understood across the UK, which has many dialects. As the British Empire expanded, 'The King's English' became the model for teaching English globally, influencing English-speaking colonies and Commonwealth countries. As a result, it held significant cultural and political authority beyond the UK.
Figure 5.10: How modern RP sounds like
(Source from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=RFT5_RT-gKk ）
Grammar plays a significant role in shaping social identity and reinforcing class distinctions. For the lower-middle class and impoverished communities, access to education and exposure to prescriptive grammar—typically learned in formal settings—can be limited. These individuals may develop linguistic patterns that diverge from the standard norms, leading to bias and stigmatization, despite the legitimacy of their dialects or non-standard grammar.
In contrast, wealthier individuals often have access to higher-quality education, which emphasizes standard or formal grammar, such as the prestigious forms associated with the upper class. This creates linguistic divides, where individuals from privileged backgrounds are perceived as more educated or competent, further perpetuating social inequality. Additionally, professional environments like law and media tend to privilege these standard forms, elevating those who master them and marginalizing those who do not.
Thus, grammar is not only a means of communication but also a social tool that reflects and reinforces class hierarchies, influencing how people are perceived, treated, and allowed to participate in various social and professional spheres.
3.6 Sexism in grammar
3.6.1 The Historical Context of Gendered Language
3.6.1 The Historical Context of Gendered Language
Societal values and norms are reflected through languages which shaped perceptions of genders. Indo-European languages, the origin of gendered language, have classified nouns into either masculine, feminine, or neuter which mirrors the roles of male and female. For example, the word “pater”(father in Latin) is masculine while the word “mater” is feminine. This reinforced traditional family structure.
Figure 6.1: Grammar Involves Sexism
(Image downloaded from : https://images.app.goo.gl/7sHkWtF2GGuHsFdq8)
Figure 6.2 : A history of Gendered Language
(Image downloaded from: https://images.app.goo.gl/KJJbSRLnBk49SWPa6)
3.6.1.1 Male Priviledge
3.6.1.1 Male Priviledge
In recorded history, the male perspectives tend to be more privileged in patriarchal societies with evidence seen in the word “he” being a generic pronoun in English. This linguistic norm marginalizes women’s experiences. A even further entrenched gender biases have been seen in religious texts depicting women as the subordinate which shaped the attitudes of the society towards women as subordinate individuals.
3.6.1.2 Changes was Made
3.6.1.2 Changes was Made
Changes was seen after the Industrial Revolution with women joining the working labour force. However, language change has lagged behind. Women’s role in the society was reinforced to be the homemakers. These biases was challenged during the feminist movements in the 19th and 20th centuries which promoted inclusive languages like the identity “Ms.” being used to separate marital status.
In modern days, gender-neutral language is keep being pushed by accepting the pronoun “they” being used as a singular for gender-neutral pupils. Understanding the historical context of gendered language is essential for us to recognize and address biases which foster a more inclusive and equal society.
Figure 6.3 : Women Working in Factories
(Image downloaded from: https://images.app.goo.gl/2r4iJpTVhXDvUBPH6)
3.6.2 The role of language in shaping perceptions
3.6.2.1 Idioms
The idioms that we use also show ingrained biases. The idiom ”throw like a girl” shows that the language doubts a woman's capability and adds negative stereotypes to women. Critically examining the language being used by us can help us understand the impact on gender perceptions and pave theroad towards a more equitable future in communication and society representation.
Language is not just a communication tool; it also defines how we see and depict the world around us. We choose words and use structures to reinforce societal norms and influence our beliefs about gender roles. For example, the use of male-centric language in professional environments might lead to the misconception that male inherent leadership and authority. People tend to think of a masculine subject more when they hear the word “strong leader” which is seen as a subtle implementation that such qualities are reserved for men.
3.6.2.1 Idioms
The idioms that we use also show ingrained biases. The idiom ”throw like a girl” shows that the language doubts a woman's capability and adds negative stereotypes to women. Critically examining the language being used by us can help us understand the impact on gender perceptions and pave theroad towards a more equitable future in communication and society representation.
Figure 6.4: Gender as a Spectrum
(Image downloaded from: https://images.app.goo.gl/A6Y8CU3AcmiQ8rbx9)
3.6.3 The Push for Gender-neutral Language
3.6.3 The Push for Gender-neutral Language
The changes in societal attitudes toward gender and identity provided significant momentum in the push for gender-neutral languages in the recent decades. The push for the use of gender-neutral languages aims to eliminate biases that was inherent in traditional language, prompting inclusivity, and respect for all gender identities. The most obvious changes is the growing popularity of gender-neutral pronouns which gave people the ability to identify as not only male and female, but out of the binary framework and changes how the world perceive gender.
3.6.3.1 Term Replacement
More and more people are putting efforts into the replacement of gendered terms with neutral alternative. For example, the usage of “-man” has been changing to “-er” or “-person” which challenged the notion that some roles are tied to one gender. The importance of inclusive language has been acknowledged by more and more educational institutions, workplace, and media outlets which leads to the assumption that guidelines and policies are expected to encourage gender neutrality.
3.6.3.2 Resistance
Resistance to the use of gender-neutral language still remains in the society due to the rooted tradition or lack of awareness. Nevertheless, it is crucial that the ongoing dialogue surrounding gender-neutral language to foster an environment where all individuals are recognized and valued contributing to a more equitable society. The harmful stereotypes can be dismantled and inclusivity can be promoted if the changes in language use can be embraced.
Figure 6.5: Gender Neutralisation in Grammar Face Challenges(Image downloaded from: https://images.app.goo.gl/j9aCsALnsXA966Ni7 )
3.6.4 The Challenges Ahead
3.6.4 The Challenges Ahead
Yes, progress is being made in promoting the use of gender-neutral languages, there are still a number of significant challenges. One of which is that some people are resistant to changes due to the deeply rooted social norms and speaking habits. Many people are tied to the traditional form of expression and could consider the efforts put into adopting gender-neutral languages as unnecessary or confusing thereby creating tensions in the discussion about inclusivity in which some people may argue that the altered language undermined cultural or historical traditions.
3.6.4.1 Implementation of Gender-neutral Language
3.6.4.2 Future
The implementation of gender-neutral languages across numerous contexts is another challenge that lies in between. For instance, the struggle to adopt to inclusive languages in professional settings might lead to the continuation of biased language which discourages applicants from different backgrounds. As for educational institutions, training educators and students to accept and embrace gender-neutral languages can be challenging due to the varying degrees of acceptance in different people.
Gender-neutral language are not recognized by most technological tools such as spelling checkers and grammar software.
3.6.4.2 Future
As society evolves, the need to address these challenges will grow overtime. A open dialogue and supportive environment towards gender-neutral languages needs to be created in order to work towards a more inclusive linguistic world that respects and represents all identities
Reference List
American Psychological Association. (2021). Equity, diversity, and inclusion framework.
Bailey, A. (1998). Privilege: Expanding on Marilyn Frye's' oppression'. Journal of Social Philosophy, 29(3)
Baldwin, A. (1982). Medieval Rhetoric and Poetics. Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies.
Bow, L. (2021). Racist Love: Asian Abstraction and the Pleasures of Fantasy. Duke University Press.
Brodzik, C. (2021). The power of inclusive language: Building diversity and inclusion in the workplace. Deloitte.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press.
Chomsky, N. (1977). On grammar. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Eisenstein, E. L. (1979). The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge University Press.
European Parliament. (n.d.). Gender-neutral language in the European Parliament.
Ferguson, J., & Bellamy, R. (2022). How to get better at using inclusive language in the workplace. Fast Company.
Flores, R. L. (2017). The rising gap between rich and poor: A look at the persistence of educational disparities in the United States and why we should worry. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), 1323698.
Fowler, H. W. (1926). A dictionary of modern English usage. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Gardner‐Chloros, P. (2020). Contact and code‐switching. The handbook of language contact, 181-199.
Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge University Press.
Gupta, A. F. (1994). The step-tongue: Children's English in Singapore. Multilingual Matters.
Hockett, C. F. (1958). A Course in Modern Linguistics. Macmillan.
Humboldt, W. von. (1988). On language: The diversity of human language-structure and its influence on the mental development of mankind (P. Heath, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published 1836)
Hunt, R. W. (1991). The Schools and the Cloister: The Life and Writings of Alexander Nequam (1157-1217). Clarendon Press.
ICAEW Insights. (2022). Words matter: How inclusive language creates a sense of belonging in the workplace.
Ide, S. (1989). Formal forms and discernment: Two neglected aspects of universals of linguistic politeness. Multilingua, 8(2-3), 223-248.
Kennedy, G. A. (1994). A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton University Press.
Kiparsky, P. (1994). "Pāṇini as a Variationist." In S. G. B. Dasgupta (Ed.), Pāṇinian Studies. The American Oriental Society.
Labov, W. (1972). Language in the inner city: Studies in the Black English vernacular. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Law, V. (1997). Grammar and Grammarians in the Early Middle Ages. Routledge.
Lewis, R. (1998). Legal Processes and Daily Lives: The Intersection of Gender, Domestic Violence and Justice. The University of Manchester (United Kingdom).
Li, C. N., & Thompson, S. A. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar. University of California Press.
Mack, P. (2012). A History of Renaissance Rhetoric 1380-1620. Oxford University Press.
McArthur, T. (1999). On the origin and nature of Standard English. World Englishes, 18(2), 161-169.
Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social motivations for codeswitching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford University Press.
Njiriri, W. (2023). Gender inclusive language: Why is it important? Includovate.
Patrick, P. L. (1999). Urban Jamaican Creole: Variation in the Mesolect. University of Alabama Press.
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York, NY: William Morrow.
Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español: Toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics, 18(7-8), 581-618.
Power, S., Edwards, T., & Wigfall, V. (2003). Education and the middle class. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Reetz, H., & Jongman, A. (2009). Phonetics: Transcription, production, acoustics, and perception. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Saussure, F. de (2011). Course in General Linguistics. Columbia University Press.
The Family Institute at Northwestern University. (2019). Inclusive language guide. Counseling@Northwestern.
Thomason, S. G., & Kaufman, T. (1988). Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. University of California Press.
Trudgill, P. (1999). Dialects of English. Blackwell Publishers.
UN Women. (2017). Guidelines on gender-inclusive language.
Wales, K. (1994). Royalese: the rise and fall of ‘The Queen's English’. English Today, 10(3), 3-10.
Watts, R. (2008). The Making of Modern English Society from 1400-1660. Routledge.
Wilhelm von Humboldt. (1999). On the diversity of human language (H. L. D. W. von Humboldt, Ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published 1836)
Workhuman Editorial Team. (2022). Four steps to more inclusive language: Examples and strategies for the workplace.
Wydick, R. C., & Sloan, A. E. (2005). Plain English for lawyers (Vol. 5). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
Comprehension questions (Chapter 3)
Please answer the following 10 multiple-choice questions.
What does grammar primarily focus on?
A) Vocabulary
B) Sentence structure
C) Punctuation
D) Spelling
Answer:
Answer:
B) Sentence structure
Which of the following is NOT a component of grammar as discussed in the text?
A) Phonology
B) Morphology
C) Pragmatics
D) Syntax
Answer:
Answer:
C) Pragmatics
Which aspect of grammar is highlighted as crucial for understanding complex ideas and interconnecting various sentence components?
A) Phonology
B) Syntax
C) Morphology
D) Pragmatics
Answer:
Answer:
B) Syntax
What cognitive skill is enhanced through the application and generalization of grammar rules, according to the text?
A) Memory and Recall
B) Attention to Detail
C) Abstract Thinking
D) Self-Monitoring and Awareness
Answer:
Answer:
C) Abstract Thinking
Which component of grammar aids learners in mastering idiomatic expressions deeply rooted in cultural contexts?
A) Phonology
B) Syntax
C) Morphology
D) Pragmatics
Answer:
Answer:
D) Pragmatics
Which invention during the Renaissance played a crucial role in the standardization of grammar texts and language education?
A) Telephone
B) Telegraph
C) Printing Press
D) Radio
Answer:
Answer:
C) Printing Press
7.Which linguistic concept emphasizes the relationships between elements in a language and focuses on language as a structured system of signs?
A) Universal Grammar
B) Code-Switching
C) Descriptive Linguistics
D) Structuralism
Answer:
Answer:
D) Structuralism
8. Which linguistic concept refers to regional varieties or social classes of language that differ in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, influenced by factors like geography, history, and social interaction?
A) Pragmatic Competence
B) Code-Switching
C) Dialects
D) Language Contact
Answer:
Answer:
C) Dialects
9. Which linguistic concept refers to linguistic adequacy or appropriateness within a given social context, including the use of politeness strategies, which vary strongly across cultures and influence grammatical choices?
A) Language Contact
B) Pragmatic Competence
C) Structuralism
D) Code-Mixing
10. What is one of the challenges mentioned in the text regarding the adoption of gender-neutral languages?
A) Lack of historical awareness
B) Resistance due to deeply rooted social norms
C) Overwhelming support from all societal sectors
D) Rapid and seamless implementation
Answer:
Answer:
B) Resistance due to deeply rooted social norms
Page updated
Google Sites
Report abuse