8.1.1Overview of Conversation Analysis

In this chapter, we will go through conversation analysis, its history and development, and some common elements of a turn-taking conversation.

8.1.1.1The need for conversation

The approach of conversation analysis came from Garfinkel and his research into ethnomethodology. It studies how the already existing knowledge of the public affects how people see different situations under different contexts. (Garfinkel,1967) And when this idea came to Sacks, he developed it into the investigation of public order that is produced through conversation, becoming the start of conversation analysis. (Sacks& Jefferson, 1992)

8.1.2 Research in Conversation Analysis

8.1.2.1 Observer's Paradox

8.1.2.2 Transcription

8.1.3 Order in Conversation Analysis

But before we understand conversational analysis, there are some core assumptions to go through, as suggested by Psathas (1995). While these rules show that conversation analysis is not random or unconstructed, it stills retains a certain level of uniqueness, as the conversations cannot be generalized into any single uniformity. (Wooffitt,2005)

8.1.3.1 Order Occurs Naturally

This is the basic assumption as demonstrated and shown in researches by Sacks, Jefferson and so on. It is the idea that the conversation should not have regard to the speakers, and that the conversation should be one that is natural and free flowing, not monitored or forcefully initiated.

8.1.3.2 Order is Repeatable

The order in conversation is repeated across all speakers, as in order to give and achieve an appropriate action, the order should be kept throughout the conversation

8.1.3.3 Order is Produced for the Conversation

That is,  order should be produced by the speakers for the conversation. The participants create the order for which they speak in and their behaviours and orders should reflect such. it also dictates that no outside force, like the analysists, should not force order externally in order to see certain effects.

8.2 In the Flow of Conversation：Exploring Turn-Taking

8.2.1 Definition and Importance

Turn-taking plays a key role in conversation analysis, which helps to achieve a smooth exchange of dialogue between different participants. It relies heavily on a systematic process that allows speakers to take turns in a way that is coherent and follows social order. (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974).

This concept is central to conversation analysis because it clearly defines the structure and flow of interactions. To better understand how participants manage their contributions fluently in dialogue, it is essential for us to learn the following Turn-Taking mechanisms. (Stivers & Sidnell, 2005).

8.2.2 Understanding Turn-taking Mechanisms 

A turn-constructional unit (TCU) is a basic segment of speech,serving as a potential "turn" in a conversation. It can take various forms, including a word, phrase, sentences, or even some non-verbal units such as gestures and laughters. This concept is important to understand how speakers manage their turns and how listeners interpret when to engage in the conversation.

 Schegloff (1990) further stresses the significance of TCUs by discussing how they interact with conversational sequences. Here are some examples of TCUs in several types of conversational units:

Single-word as TCUs  

"No" --a simple response to a question or showing you disagree with something

"What?" --- indicating confusion or asking for further explanations

"Alright"--- showing that you agree to do something.

Phrases as TCUs          

 "Not really" ---used to express uncertainty when someone ask you to something.

"Under the sofa"---answering a question about the direction of an object.

"Right away"---indicating that you will take immediate action.

Non-verbal as TCUs 

Laughters can create a natural and humorous atmosphere while having a conversation.

Gestures such as a nod or bow can let people know the things you want to convey in different contexts.

8.2.2.2. The Turn-Allocation Mechanism 

The Turn-Allocation Mechanism is a crucial concept in CA to describe how participants in a conversation manage the flow of talk. More importantly, deciding who will be the next to take turns in a conversation. This process is governed by some following implicit rules to help maintain order and coherence in natural dialogue.

8.2.3 Context and Cultural Variations

Turn-taking conventions can be various based on context and culture.

Turn-taking differ significantly between American and Japanese cultures reflecting distinct communication norms. 

In American culture, there is a strong emphasis on allowing one person to speak at a time, with interruptions and overlapping speech generally seen as disrespectful. This approach ensures clarity and provides each speaker with an opportunity to express their thoughts fully. (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974)

In contrast, Japanese culture embraces the use of "aizuchi"—short, frequent interjections like "un" or "sō"—to show concentration and understanding during a conversation（Maynard, 1990).These interjections often occur mid-sentence, reflecting politeness and active engagement. 

While American norms prioritize individual expression and uninterrupted speech, Japanese conventions emphasize collaboration and listener involvement, highlighting the cultural values underlying communication styles.

8.2.4 Applications in Different Fields

Turn-taking is not only a conversationthat adapts to the unique demands of various contexts, such as education, healthcare, and even political events like U.S. presidential elections. Its relevance in each domain lies in its ability to structure interactions, ensuring clarity and fairness.

8.3.2.1Self‐initiated self‐repair

8.3.2.1.1 Self‐initiated self‐repair in third position

8.3.2.2 Self‐initiated other‐repair

8.3.2.3Other‐initiated self‐repair

8.3.2.4Other‐initiated other‐repair

8.3.3Communication Overlap

8.3.3.1Definition

Communication overlap refers to instances in a conversation where two or more speakers begin to speak at the same time or where one speaker’s utterance interrupts or coincides with another’s. This phenomenon can occur in various forms and has significant implications for the dynamics of interaction.

8.3.4Three types of Communication Overlap

8.3.5 Implications of Communication Overlap

“Silence is the limit of our world of description or language; and a limit can never be a part of the world of which it is a limit. Just as ‘eye’ cannot be a part of the visual field, or ‘self’ a part of the objective world, similarly silence can never be a part of the world of language.”

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           ——Ganguly, S. N. (1968)

8.4.2.1 Psychological Mechanisms of Silence

Psychological Mechanisms of Silence involve a broader range of psychological principles, including cognitive, emotional, and social factors that collectively lead individuals to choose silence. This concept focuses more on the psychological mechanisms of silence, for example, silence might be a coping strategy used to deal with stress, avoid conflicts, or manage emotions. Within this mechanism, silence may be closely related to an individual's psychological state, such as anxiety, depression, or self-awareness. 

Some examples of psychological mechanisms is, with the development of society, more and more instances of 'workplace ostracism' are emerging. Workplace ostracism is a complex form of interpersonal conflict that can lead to employees developing avoidance and retaliation responses, with silence being one of them. Those who are isolated may, due to a lack of security and a sense of belonging, hesitate to approach those around them, fearing they will be rejected again. Other reasons for silence might include psychological mechanisms similar to “negative punishment,” where individuals who have been isolated in the past for speaking out of turn in the workplace are likely to choose to remain silent in similar situations in the future. When more people remain silent in the same setting, the atmosphere becomes constrained, as if there is an additional barrier that hinders communication among everyone.

8.4.2.2 Attribution Theory of Silence

This theory is originally developed by Heider (1958) and primarily focuses on the attributability of silence, that is, why people choose to remain silent and the motives and reasons behind this behavior. It may involve multiple disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and communication studies, exploring the significance and function of silence in different contexts. For instance, in communication research, silence may be regarded as a way of conveying information, capable of transmitting various intentions and emotions, such as agreement, disagreement, hesitation, or contemplation. Within this theory, silence is viewed as a behavior with multifaceted reasons behind it, including sociocultural factors, individual psychological states, and communication strategies.

Attributable theories of silence examine the reasons and motivations behind silence in different social and communicative contexts, while psychological mechanisms of silence examine the internal psychological processes that lead to silence, such as stress management and emotion regulation. The former is more sociological and communicative, while the latter is essentially psychological in nature, focusing on individual mental health.

The interplay of these psychological and contextual factors illustrates how silence can be both a personal coping mechanism and a reflection of broader organizational culture.

8.4.3.1 Linkage 

8.4.3.1.1 Definition and Examples

Linkage attributable silence refers to silence’s role in establishing or maintaining social connections. In some cases, silence can be a powerful form of non-verbal communication that helps build trust and understanding (Wang, 2011).

Linkage attributable silence refers to silence’s role in establishing or maintaining social connections. In some cases, silence can be a powerful form of non-verbal communication that helps build trust and understanding (Wang, 2011).

Introvert person can be strong and become good leaders. The real proof that you are a good leader is when finish a project, their followers say the words “we did it”!

8.4.3.2 Judgmental 

8.4.3.2.1 Definition and Examples

Judgmental attributable silence refers to the silence chosen by individuals after evaluating a situation because they believe speaking might lead to negative consequences or violate social norms. 

This silence can be a social control mechanism by which disapproval or dissatisfaction is expressed through silence (Morrison & Milliken, 2000). For example, organizational silence, which refers to the phenomenon of employees that they collectively decide not to provide information or feedback when facing potential problems, occurs in view of the management’s negative reactions and potential perspectives (Morrison & Milliken, 2000); Ironically, despite management consistently emphasizing these ideals, true empowerment is not achieved in most organizations. This ambivalent disconnect leads the employees feeling unable to express themselves, so they choose to remain silent. This adversely affects organizational change and the development of a truly diverse environment. In a diverse organization, employees must feel safe and encouraged to share their personal opinions. If they feel that their opinions are not valued or that sentences may lead to negative consequences, then the organization will not be able to take full advantage of the diversity of its workforce.

Another example is, contrary to what is mentioned in 8.4.3.1.1(above), if a husband chooses to remain silent arguing with his wife, the silent would further upset the wife if she thinks it is her husband’s indifference to her (Wang, 2011).

8.4.3.3 Revelatory 

8.4.3.3.1 Definition and Examples

Revelatory attributable silence is the silence that reveals an individual's inner state or unspoken thoughts. In communication, silence can sometimes express a person's true feelings more than words (Kenny, 2011).

This phenomenon is prevalent in our daily lives. 

8.4.3.4 Activating Silence

8.4.3.4.1 Definition and Examples

Figure 4.10 activating outcome in classroom activities    source from: https://zqb.cyol.com/images/1/20190910/1568052339328_1.jpg

With the hands of technology embracing the world, the way we communicate has undergone a dramatic transformation. Under this background, the meaning and role of silence also evolve. In digital communication, silence may no longer be just physical silence but encompasses more dimensions, such as “read but not replied” in online communication and “liking” but not commenting on social media. These behaviors do not involve verbal exchanges but still convey messages and attitudes.

Morrison and Milliken (2000) state: “The behavioral cycle of maintaining organizational silence in turn-taking will be extremely hard to break. One reason is that these cycles are not subject to direct observation or discussion. Another is that once people start distrusting a system, it is extremely hard to restore their faith (Zand, 1972).” And in the fast-paced digital age, silence may be seen as a handicap to communication effectiveness. Prolonged silence can lead to misunderstandings or communication breakdowns, affecting productivity and relationships. What’s more, silence can be further complicated because on some social platforms, users cannot see what is behind them, and they can choose to express their opinions anonymously. Meanwhile, on public social platforms, silence can be interpreted as a default attitude towards a topic or event. What's even scarier is that sometimes online violence also comes from silence.

video 4.13 why silence is power    source form: https://youtu.be/IkJZMxW__nI 

Silence is prevalent in everyday life, whether at home, social gatherings, or on the internet. If it is used appropriately, silence can add depth and nuance to communication. A well-timed pause can allow one to organize one's thoughts and avoid impulsive statements that can lead to misunderstandings.

Moreover, silence plays a crucial role in interpersonal dynamics. It can serve as a non-verbal form of communication that often conveys deeper emotions than words alone. Therefore, understanding and mastering the art of silence is crucial to fostering healthy relationships. By recognizing the significance of silence, individuals can gain better insight into their own and others' feelings, leading to more harmonious interactions.

When silence is perceived as an important signal, it may trigger specific emotional responses, may affect the individuals’ cognition, and may influence the dynamics in interpersonal relationships. Attributable silence can be found everywhere in society, and the correct use of silence can be extremely meaningful.

8.5.1 Introduction to Conversation Sequences

8.5.1.2:Importance of Sequence in Communication.

Understanding how utterances form sequences in conversation is crucial for several reasons:

8.5.2 Adjacency Pairs 

8.5.2.1 Definition of Adjacency Pairs 

Adjacency pairs are basis for conversation . An adjacency pair is identified when one inter-actionally relevant utterance immediately follows another 'Given the recognizable completion its speaker should produce a second pair of the  same pair type.'(Schegloff，E.A.1973) 

8.5.2.2 Specific Features of Adjacency Pairs 

1.composed of two turns

2.by different speakers

3.adjacently placed; that is, one after the other 

4. these two turns are relatively ordered;  that is, they are differentiated into " first pair parts"(FPPs, or Fs for short) and "second pair parts“（SPPs, or Ss for short). There are different types of adjacency pairs, for example, offer-acceptance/rejection, greeting-greeting, question-answer, complaint-excuse/remedy, and request-acceptance/denial

The significance of adjacency pairs lies in their role in maintaining conversational flow and social norms, as they help speakers navigate interactions smoothly and ensure that responses are contextually pairs, we gain insight into the implicit rules that govern everyday communication, highlighting how language functions as a social tool for connection and understanding.

8.5.3 Exchange, IRF Pattern

8.5.3.1 Definition of Exchange

Although the word "pair" is used, we should not be misled by the word, as sometimes the first speaker would follow up on the second speaker's response. This sequence structure is referred to as a "three-part" exchange, with the third part called the 'follow-up move'. Continued use of  terminology associated with 'adjacency pairs' and call such third parts 'consequences'. In such cases, the three utterances together are now called an exchange. 

8.5.3.2 IRF Pattern

An exchange normally follows the IRF pattern: Initiation, response and follow up. A typical exchange in the classroom consists of an initiation by the teacher, followed by a response from the pupil, followed by feedback, to the pupil’s response from the teacher. (Sinclair，J. and Coulthard，A .1975) 

8.5.4 Preferred Responses, Dis-preferred Responses 

8.5.4.1 Definition

In people’s daily lives, people don’t always respond positively. That means that our utterances may be ignored and rejected. Based on this situation responses can be divided into two categories: preferred responses and dis-preferred responses. “Preferred and dis-preferred” are possibly misleading terms here. Because it definitely does not refer to the speaker’s personal “preference” but to the structure of the language. "Preference" in this context refers to the observation that language is organized in such a way as to encourage linguistically "preferred" behaviors while linguistically "undesirable" behaviors are discouraged, thus limiting conflict.( Person, J. R. F. 2009).It simply means that positive answers are called preferred responses, and the negative ones termed dis-preferred responses.

This type of response is known as preference organization presented in the structure of adjacency pairs. Two types of adjacency pairs then emerge: adjacency pairs with preferred second parts and neighboring pairs with dis-preferred second parts.

1.A: Are you free tonight?

   B: Um… I’ve got some assignments to finish… Sorry.

2.A: By the way, are you up for coffee this week?

   B: I’d love that! Let’s catch up and chat more about everything.

   A: Perfect! Looking forward to it.

These can find that preferred responses are normally given straightforwardly, without delay, while dis-

preferred responses are quite often delayed, and are often characterized by starting a turn with “well” to “Um”.

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1. Conversation analysis is developed by :

A. Harvey Sacks 

B. Albert Einstein

C. Harold Garfinkel

D. me

Answer: A

2. Conversation analysis data can be best obtained through the use of:

A. memorizing a conversation

B. observing a real conversation play out

C. creating a conversation

D. recording the conversation 

Answer: D

3.Based on the passage, what do the terms "preferred responses" and "dis-preferred responses" refer to in conversation analysis.

  A.Responses based on the speaker's personal preferences

  B. Responses categorized by their emotional tone

  C. Linguistically structured responses that indicate acceptance or rejection

  D. Responses that reflect cultural differences in communication 

 Answer: C 

4.What is the primary significance of adjacency pairs in conversation, as described in the passage? 

  A.They are used to measure the length of conversations.

  B. They help maintain conversational flow and social norms.

  C.They indicate the emotional tone of the interaction. 

  D. They serve as a method for language learning. 

 Answer: B

5.What are communication repairs primarily used for in conversations?

A.To change the subject

B.To address problems in speaking, hearing, or understanding

C.To introduce new topics

D.To end a conversation

Answer: B

6.Which type of communication overlap occurs when two speakers begin to talk at the same time?

A. Interruption

B.Backchanneling

C.Simultaneous Speech

D. Self-initiated repair

Answer: C

7.Which of the following correctly reflects how the "Turn-Allocation Mechanism" works?
A. The current speaker must explicitly designate the next speaker at the end of their turn, or the conversation cannot proceed.
B. If the current speaker does not designate the next speaker, other participants can self-select to take the turn, which might lead to overlaps or require negotiation.
C. If no one self-selects to speak, the conversation will naturally stop and cannot continue.
D. Cultural differences have no significant impact on the "Turn-Allocation Mechanism."

Answer: B

8.Which option best describes the importance of "Turn-Taking" in conversation?
A. It refers to the ability to express emotions in a dialogue, unrelated to the conversation's content.
B. It is a systematic process that ensures smooth exchanges between participants, maintaining social order and coherence.
C. It emphasizes the importance of words, phrases, and sentences but is unrelated to communication methods.
D. Its sole purpose is to avoid silence during conversations.

Answer: B

9. What is the definition of "attributable silence" mentioned above?

A. The complete absence of sound

B. A kind of silence that is meaningful even after relevance has disappeared

C. A kind of silence that is meaningful because it occurs in the absence of occurrence while still being relevant

D. A kind of silence that is highly dependent on culture, with different cultures having different norms of silence

Answer: C

10. According to the context, which of the following is not a psychological mechanism leading to organizational silence?

A. Employees' fear of negative repercussions

B. Lack of psychological safety

C. The influence of team climate on members' willingness to speak up

D. Excessive communication within the organization

Answer: D