K. Buhler and C. Buhler

• coined "technical thinking" by K. Buhler
• first manifestations of practical intelligence/technical thinking appear around 6 months of age (C. Buhler)
• beginnings of practical intelligence/technical thinking are independent of and precede speech
• practical intelligence/technical thinking makes up the initial phase of cognitive development (K. Buhler)
• findings: speech and intelligent action are independent of one another
• Vgostsky's viewpoint
  • speech and practical intelligence are integrated in the course of development

Shapiro and Gerke

• social experience plays a dominant role in development
• children learn through imitating adult use of tools and objects, developing motor schema
• Vgostsky's viewpoint
  • ideas are too deeply rooted in "mechanical conception of repetition"
  • the role of speech in development is ignored

Guillaume and Myerson

• work with apes suggests a similarity with people who do not have the ability to speak
• Vgostsky's viewpoint
  • this work supports the idea that speech plays a role in higher psychological functions

• aforementioned studies viewed speech and practical intelligence as having different origins
• the two can operate separately but their connection is an important component of human behavior
• Vgostsky's viewpoint
  • the connection between speech and practical intelligence (activities) has been overlooked by researchers