Anatomy
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Year at a Glance
The science standards for high science school build upon the foundation for students to work as scientists by asking testable questions, collecting and analyzing different types of evidence, and by providing rationale for their interpretations through reasoning and/or argumentation. Mastery of these standards will result in students deepening their understanding of science through an application and development of scientific knowledge to the solution of practical problems.
Life Science: Students in high school life science courses will develop an understanding of key concepts that help them make sense of life science. The ideas are building upon students’ science understanding of disciplinary core ideas, science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts from earlier grades. There are five life science topics in high school: 1) Structure and Function, 2) Inheritance and Variation of Traits, 3) Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems, 4) Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems, and 5) Natural Selection and Evolution. These include the most fundamental concepts in life science, but are intended to leave room for expanded study in upper-level high school courses. Students may encounter these standards across a variety of courses including, but not limited to Biology, Anatomy and Environmental Science.
Teacher Resources
Pearson Mastering Resources (AP Biology & Anatomy)
Course Tools:
Expectations for Students in Life Science
Understand that DNA codes for the complex hierarchical organization of systems that enable life's functions and that growth and division of cells in complex organisms occurs by mitosis, which differentiates specific cell types.
Recognize that organisms use matter and energy to live and grow, and that organisms interact with the living and nonliving components of the environment to obtain matter and energy. Explain how matter and energy which are necessary for life, are conserved as they move through ecosystems.
Understand how a complex set of interactions determine how ecosystems respond to disturbances, and how organisms interact in groups to benefit the species.
Understand how the characteristics of one generation are dependent upon the genetic information inherited from previous generations, and that variation between individuals results from genetic and environmental factors.
Understand how evidence of common ancestry and diversity between species can be determined by examining variations including genetic, anatomical and physiological differences, and that genetic variation among organisms affects survival and reproduction.
Recognize that environment influences survival and reproduction of organisms over multiple generations, and that as humans, we have complex interactions with ecosystems and have the ability to influence biodiversity on the planet.
When Studying Life Science You May Find Students:
When Studying Life Science You May Find Students:
Analyzing and interpreting data on genes; demonstrating how DNA processes are the same in all organisms; developing, communicating, and justifying an explanation of how cells form specialized tissues.
Using a model to illustrate the role of cellular division (mitosis) and differentiation in producing and maintaining complex organisms.
Planning and conducting an investigation to provide evidence that feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
Developing an explanation that shows how ecosystems follow the laws of conservation of matter and energy; analyzing how energy flows through trophic levels (food webs); describing how various cycles work (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water).
Using mathematical representations to support and revise explanations based on evidence about factors affecting biodiversity and populations in ecosystems of different scales.
Evaluating claims, evidence, and reasoning that the complex interactions in ecosystems maintain relatively consistent numbers and types of organisms in stable conditions, but changing conditions may result in a new ecosystem.
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology: Chapter Overviews
Chapter 1: The Human Body - An Introduction
Chapter 1 emphasizes the relevance of anatomy and physiology in explaining the phenomena that occur in the body every day. It introduces and establishes the framework upon which all the other chapters are built. This chapter provides the necessary terminology so that instructor and students are all “speaking the same language.” It begins by defining the key terms anatomy and physiology, and then continues to describe the ways in which these key terms are interrelated. It is important that students understand the concept of complementarity of structure and function in the body. Structure determines function; the various body structures in their form are most efficient for the particular function that the structure performs. This concept will help students to master the more difficult material in future chapters. It is also important to emphasize to students that this course is similar to a language class in that new, unfamiliar terminology will be introduced; this course requires students to begin to learn the language of medicine. This language is a universal one shared by medical professionals across various specializations, and it is one that the students will repeatedly “speak” in their future allied health careers.
Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry
Chapter 2 provides an overview of basic chemistry relevant to human A&P. Although this is often a topic that students do not realize is essential in human A&P, and try to avoid, it is important to convey to them that the physical chemistry and molecular interactions covered in this chapter will serve as a foundation of knowledge for the mechanisms of physiological processes discussed throughout the rest of the course. For example, this chapter is important for gaining a better understanding of how membrane depolarization works in the nervous and muscular systems for communication (Chapters 6 and 7) and how dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions participate and are integral in the biochemical metabolic pathways in the digestive system (Chapter 14).
Chapter 3: Cells and Tissues
Chapter 3 is the transition chapter between microscopic and macroscopic anatomical study. Students are asked to examine the microscopic structure of individual cells, and subsequently combine them to form body tissues that perform specialized functions.
First, the discussion of the four elements that are found in all cells continues from Chapter 2. The cell theory, which emphasizes the cell as the fundamental building block of life, is then introduced to the students. The discussion moves to the anatomy of a generalized cell, which contains all of the features commonly found in mature human cells. The rationale of starting with a generalized cell is to allow students to gain a clear understanding of the three major regions of the cell and the organelles and structural components within them. The generalized cell combines features of different types of body cells.
The final section of this chapter presents body tissues and their functions. Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues are differentiated, followed by an overview of the developmental aspects of cells and tissues.
Chapter 4: Skin and Body Membranes
Chapter 4 builds upon the cell and tissue information presented in Chapter 3, with a fo-cus on skin and body membranes. Students now have an understanding of the similari-ties and differences between cells, and also have a working knowledge of the various types of tissues in the body. Continuing with the theme of increasing complexity of lev-els of organization, the next step is the combination of two or more tissue types to form an organ with specific functions, an example of which are membranes. The four types of membranes (cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial) are presented.
Chapter 5: The Skeletal System
The skeletal system is one of the body systems that students most enjoy studying: They can easily identify the system in their own bodies, and many students have rudimentary knowledge about various bones through their own sports activities or past injuries. Naming the bones is initially a challenge; however, skeletal nomenclature then rapidly becomes a source of confidence as students develop their identification skills. Learning about the dynamic nature of bones, and in particular their role in hematopoiesis, the rich nerve supply and vascularization, as well as the constant remodeling that takes place, also dispels many preconceived ideas that students may have about bones resembling dead twigs or remaining unchanged over time.
Chapter 6: The Muscular System
The muscular system presents challenges similar to those in the skeletal system in that this system requires both the conceptualization of complex mechanisms and the memorization of numerous key terms, ranging from microscopic to macroscopic structures. Providing students with a list of criteria used in the naming of muscles helps them over-come their anxiety and helps them view the task as manageable.
This chapter begins with an overview of three types of muscle tissue. Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle characteristics, and the location, function, and level of conscious control of these tissues are compared and contrasted. Because the muscular system refers specifically to only the skeletal muscles, the chapter then focuses on the anatomy and physiology of this tissue type.
Chapter 7: The Nervous System
The nervous system is the body’s fast-acting master control center. It monitors changes inside and outside the body, integrates sensory input, and quickly generates an appropriate feedback response. Working together with the slower-acting endocrine system, which is the body’s second most important regulating system, the nervous system is able to constantly regulate and maintain homeostasis within narrow limits that are neces-sary for proper physiological functioning. This chapter looks at both the structural and functional classifications of the nervous system, first separately and then as an integrated whole, to help students conceptualize the complexity of this system.
Chapter 8: Special Senses
The special senses keep us informed as to what is going on in our external world. Sense receptors are found in large, complex sensory organs like the eye or in localized clusters of receptors like the taste buds. This chapter focuses on the special senses: vision, hearing and balance, olfaction, and gustation. Each of the sensory organs is described individually, but the text also emphasizes that we experience the world as a blending of the effects of various stimuli, detected by multiple special sense structures.
Chapter 9: The Endocrine System
The endocrine system is the slow-acting communication system of the body. Second in command to the nervous system (the fast-acting homeostatic control system) that over-sees it, the endocrine system regulates the homeostatic processes of reproduction, growth and development, body defenses, metabolic processes, and blood chemistry. Blood borne communication chemicals called hormones are the effectors of the endocrine system. Hormones circulate in the blood until reaching the target tissues upon which they are designed to act. They then bind with the awaiting cell receptors and immediately begin to influence the internal machinery of those cells.
Chapter 10: Blood
Blood can be viewed as the body’s “river of life.” In the previous chapter, blood’s role in transporting hormones around the body was addressed. In this chapter, this key role of transport extends to nutrients, metabolic wastes, immune system cells and products, and, of course, oxygen.
Chapter 11: The Cardiovascular System
There is a public health focus on the cardiovascular system, because heart disease continues to be the leading cause of mortality in the United States. Nevertheless, the importance of the cardiovascular system cannot be overstated. This chapter will focus students on the complexity of the system and its significance to all other body systems, as it is the transport system to and from the organs.
Chapter 10 Clinical Case Study
Chapter 12: Lymphatic System & Body Defenses
One of the least recognized of the body systems, the lymphatic system has been gaining ground in recognition and understanding over the past two decades, largely due to research into AIDS, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. The structural components of this system lymphoid organs, tissue, lymph fluid, and white blood cells are important players in the body’s immunity against invading and infiltrating pathogens. Although familiar with the idea of immunity, students are usually unfamiliar with the complementary role it plays with the cardiovascular system, as it surveys, filters, and cleanses leaked plasma before it is returned to the bloodstream.
Chapter 13: The Respiratory System
The respiratory system is intimately connected to the cardiovascular system, both in lo-cation and function. Together, they work to supply all body cells with oxygen and dis-pose of metabolic end products such as carbon dioxide. The systems work interdependently with one another and are considered to be one of the most important homeostatic organ system teams in the body.
Chapter 14: The Digestive System
The digestive system chapter is divided into two distinct parts. Part I delves into the anatomy and physiology of the digestive system. This portion is the easier of the two parts for students to learn, since students generally are fascinated by the workings of their digestive system. Part II deals with the nutritional and metabolic aspects of diges-tion. Because these biochemical concepts are often difficult to visualize, as they are molecular pathways, this is often the area students find most confusing.
Chapter 14 Digestive Clinical Case Study
Chapter 10 Liver Clinical Case Study
Chapter 15: The Urinary System
The kidneys, as described in the chapter, “are perfect examples of homeostatic organs” that perform a wide variety of functions. They filter fluid from the bloodstream and process the filtrate. They excrete nitrogenous wastes and excess ions, rid the body of drugs and toxins, and retain needed ions and nutrients. They manufacture urine and regulate the volume and chemical makeup of blood. They balance water and salts, as well as acids and bases. They also convert vitamin D to its active form and produce hormones that function to regulate blood pressure and stimulate red blood cell (RBC) production. This chapter outlines each of these functions and explains the homeostatic link between them.
Chapter 15 Clinical Case Study
Chapter 16: The Reproductive System
Of all the body systems, the most interesting to students is usually the reproductive system. Students frequently start with a good, although general, base of information and are eager to build on what they already know, and many view this chapter as having “real world” relevance. For this reason, the material found in this chapter often initiates good discussion in the classroom. In this chapter, the male anatomy and reproductive functions are presented first. The testes and their accessory ducts are each described in order of sperm travel, followed by an explanation of the accessory glands and their secretions. Semen is the combination of the sperm with the accessory gland secretions. The secretions from the seminal vesicles and prostate gland combine with sperm as the sperm travels through each structure, and the secretions from the bulbourethral glands cleanse the urethra of acid and serve as a lubricant during sexual intercourse. The role of the scrotum in temperature regulation is explained, as is the function of the penis in sperm delivery. Following the anatomy of the male reproductive system is an overview of the process of spermatogenesis, or sperm production. Testosterone production is explained, and the secondary sex characteristics that this hormone stimulates are outlined.
Multilingual Learner Language Expectations
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