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Learning Styles and Dispositions
Accommodating Differences in the Classroom
Table 4.1 General and specific categories of students with special needs
Important Terms that Relate to Students as Diverse Learners
Students’ learning is influenced not only by age and cognitive development, as discussed in Chapter 3 of this tutorial, but also by language, culture, family, and community values (i.e., primarily group differences) as well as individual experiences, talents, motivations, and prior learning (i.e., primarily individual differences). Successful teachers need to understand how each of these variables, and others, affect how individual students learn.
Group Differences
In addition to general trends and age-related developmental differences addressed in Chapter 1 of this tutorial, researchers have identifiedgroup differences — behaviors that are generally shared among students of specific cultural and ethnic groups, gender, or socioeconomic backgrounds but consistently differ from those of students in other groups. The characterization of the behavior of a particular group is based on the norm, or average behavior of the members of that group, but it’s important to remember that individuals within the group will also be somewhat different from one another. Group differences are identified when the behavior of the individuals in the same group is more similar, on average, than the behavior of individuals from different groups.
Gender Differences
Physical activity and biological development
Boys tend to be more active than girls.
Girls develop fine motor skills earlier than boys.
Girls reach puberty earlier than boys, but after puberty, boys are taller and stronger.
Cognitive and academic abilities
On average, boys and girls perform similarly on tests of general intelligence, although boys show more variability. In other words, the average scores for girls and boys are about the same, but more boys score extremely high and extremely low.
Boys perform better on tasks requiring visual-spatial skill. Girls perform better on some, but not all, verbal skills and tend to have larger vocabularies. Researchers speculate that these differences are due, at least in part, to biological differences in brain development, perhaps as a result of gender-specific hormones both in utero and during puberty.
More boys than girls are identified with learning disabilities.
Motivation
Boys have more ambitious career aspirations than girls have.
Girls are more concerned about doing well in school, are more engaged in classroom activities, work more diligently on school assignments, and are more likely to graduate from high school.
Girls to prefer tasks at which they know they can succeed, and often have difficulty dealing with failure. Boys are more willing to take on academic challenges and risks and are more likely to take their failures in stride.
Classroom behavior
Boys are more active—they talk more and ask more questions, and they are more likely to call out answers and dominate class discussions.
Girls are slower to respond in groups, less likely to volunteer ideas and ask questions, and often wait to be called on directly.
Cultural Differences
Research on cultural differences is only beginning to identify consistent behavior patterns, and it’s important to keep in mind that recognition of typical behaviors within a culture can lead, inappropriately, to stereotyping. Nevertheless, teachers should keep cultural differences in mind when anticipating or evaluating student behaviors, as the cultural mismatch that occurs when the child’s home culture and school culture have conflicting expectations can negatively affect students’ academic achievement.
Researchers have identified cultural differences on the following characteristics:
Use of language and dialect. Cultures tend to be associated with specific languages (e.g., students in the United States are educated in English; students in Germany speak German; students in Hong Kong SAR are educated in Chinese or in English). However, individuals who speak the specific language of their country may use forms different than the standard acceptable at school. For example, African American English is a dialect of English, with its own consistent pronunciations, syntax, and figures of speech. Dialects are not “bad” or “substandard” speech, but many people in mainstream culture continue to believe that speakers of the language “standard” are smarter or better educated.
Talking and remaining silent. In some cultures, for example, speaking frequently or without being asked is seen as a sign of low intelligence or immaturity. For example, children in some Southeast Asian countries are taught to speak only when addressed. In others, such as mainstream American culture, casual conversation is expected and used as a form of affiliation.
Asking and responding to questions. In many cultures, children are expected to ask and answer questions as part of learning, but for some (e.g., some Mexican Americans and some Native Americans), asking questions is inappropriate and even rude. Furthermore, although American teachers and parents often ask children questions for which they know the answers (e.g., “And how old are you?” “So what does the first paragraph say?”), in some cultures, children are not asked this type of question. In other cultures, children are taught not to answer questions about personal things (e.g., “What does your father do?”).
Taking turns in a conversation. Some cultures are more tolerant of — and in fact even encourage — interruptions and overlap while others are speaking, rather than waiting for the current speaker to end his or her turn. Others learn that waiting for a speaker to finish is a sign of respect.
A focus on cooperation or competition within the group. Children from cultures valuing cooperation and interdependence (e.g., many Hispanic and Native American cultures) may prefer and excel at group activities, whereas those from cultures emphasizing competition may have more difficulty with group work but excel at individual seatwork.
Socioeconomic Differences
Group differences due to family socioeconomic status (SES) are often confused with ethnic differences. Research consistently shows that students from lower socioeconomic status, especially those who live in poverty, are at risk of academic difficulties and behavioral problems. Higher-SES students tend to have higher academic achievement, and lower-SES students tend to be at greater risk for dropping out of school. Differences among students from different socioeconomic backgrounds become greater as the students get older.
Children who live in chronic poverty experience the greatest risk — they are frequently faced with poor nutrition, exposure to toxins, inadequate and often unstable housing, and fewer community and home resources (e.g., less parental involvement, fewer classroom resources and teachers with lower expectations, less safe neighborhoods).
Individual Differences
As noted previously, individuals within a group will also be somewhat different from one another. These differences are known as individual differences. Examples include differences in intelligence and learning styles, which are discussed in detail in the following sections. Teachers should also recognize and attend to individual differences in temperament, personality, and motivation (discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5 of this tutorial).
Intelligence
Intelligence has traditionally been difficult to define, and researchers hold diverse views on the sorts of behaviors that show intelligence and on how to measure it. For example, Spearman hypothesized about general intelligence as a single factor (g), whereas Sternberg suggested intelligence is triarchic, comprising analytical, creative, and practical intelligences. However, researchers generally agree that we can identify clear differences in students’ information-processing abilities (i.e., fluid intelligence) and basic knowledge (i.e., crystallized intelligence). Teachers can look beyond just these skills and focus on distributed intelligence — the idea that people act more “intelligently” when they have physical, symbolic, or social assistance — or other abilities, skills, or talents that some researchers label as “intelligences.” For example, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences currently identifies individual differences in linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematicalintelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, andnaturalist intelligence.
Learning Styles and Dispositions
Students with the same intelligence levels often approach classroom tasks and think about classroom topics differently. Some of these individual differences are due to cognitive or learning styles. One consistent finding is that some learners are analytic, whereas others process information holistically. For example, analytic learners break down tasks into pieces and approach each piece separately and in turn, whereas holistic learners approach a task as a single integrated project. Another consistent finding is that some people prefer and learn better from verbal information, whereas others prefer a visual presentation.
Additionally, researchers have identified certain dispositions — general inclinations to approach tasks in a particular way — that differ among individuals. For example, some individuals seek more stimulation than others, some seek more challenging cognitive tasks than others, and some are more open-minded than others. These dispositions are often correlated with aspects of motivation and student achievement.
Accommodating Differences in the Classroom
Group differences can often be accommodated in multicultural or culturally inclusive classrooms, which integrate into the curriculum the perspectives and experiences of diverse cultural groups. A multicultural curriculum includes varied activities that encourage student understanding of different points of views, rather than requiring acceptance of particular beliefs and values.
Many individual differences can be accommodated through ability grouping or by flexible teachers who are sensitive to individual learning styles and dispositions. However, some individual differences result in students having special needs in the classroom (see Table 4.1 for examples). In some cases, these needs must be accommodated, or in other words, the classroom experience must be adapted, enriched, or replaced in some way to ensure that the student's needs are met. Referral to special education programs can come from parents, teachers, or physicians, and the school and the parents must agree to testing. Evaluation of students must be nondiscriminatory, multidisciplinary, and comprehensive. This initial evaluation determines whether the student is eligible for special education services and is based on whether the student can successfully meet educational objectives in the traditional classroom environment.. Federal funds are provided when students have been identified as needing special services.
Special education in the United States is mandated by law: In 1975 the U.S. Congress passed Public Law 94-142, which is now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA has been amended and reauthorized several times and now grants educational rights for all people, from birth until age 21, regardless of cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities. The law guarantees the right to a free and appropriate education, fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation, education in the least restrictive environment, and an individualized education program (IEP). Development of the IEP involves collaboration among the student’s parents, a general education teacher, a school administrator, a special education teacher, an IEP specialist, and sometimes the student him- or herself. The IEP specifies the student’s present level, unique needs, necessary modifications or related services, goals and objectives, and transition planning.Additionally, IDEA specifies that students are entitled to due process regarding their educational planning.
Not all students who need special accommodations in school are covered by IDEA, but their needs may be addressed by other laws.Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in any program that receives federal money, such as public schools. Through Section 504, all school-age children are ensured an equal opportunity to participate in school activities. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) extends the protections of Section 504 beyond the school and workplace to libraries, local and state governments, restaurants, hotels, theaters, stores, public transportation, and many other settings.
Specific cognitive or academic difficulties that must be accommodated with special education and related services are shown in Table 4.1.
Adapted from Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, by J. E. Ormrod, 2009, Columbus, OH: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here.
Other Exceptionalities
In addition, students who are gifted and students for whom English is not a first language may need additional assistance in the classroom to help them reach their potential.
Students who are gifted. Students who are gifted are eligible for special servicse under the current federal guidelines. Giftedness is defined as an exceptionally high ability in one or more areas. High IQ (above 125 or 130) is one typical measure of giftedness. However, because IQ tests are not always unbiased or reliable measures and because some students do not have an exceptionally high IQ overall but are gifted in only one or a few domains (e.g., math, music), school personnel are increasingly relying on multiple assessment measures (see Chapter 7 of this tutorial) to identify students who are gifted. Typical characteristics of students who are gifted include advanced language and social skills, rapid acquisition of new information and learning strategies, flexibility in their thought processes, positive self-concepts, and high intrinsic motivation (see Chapter 5 of this tutorial).
Students learning English. When confronted with an English-only curriculum, students whose heritage language is not English (i.e., “English language learners,” or ELL students) face extra challenges. Even if they have mastered basic conversational English, they often find that the academic language used in the classroom has its own vocabulary, expressive style (e.g., may be more expository than narrative), and sociolinguistic conventions. When teaching and especially when assessing ELL students, teachers should make every effort to attend to and address students’ English language skills.
Accommodations for Learning
Approaches for accommodating various learning styles, intelligences, and exceptionalities include:
Alternative assessments or modified procedures. For example, students with ADHD may need several sessions to complete one assessment; students with dyslexia may benefit from an oral exam rather than a paper-and-pencil test. Teachers can also reduce the difficulty level or the amount of work required for particular assignments and/or can offer more time or more support to complete the work.
Differentiated instruction. This practice involves development of individualized instructional methods based on the student’s existing knowledge and specific needs.
An individualized education program (IEP). The IEP, as noted previously, is a formal agreement between parents and the school that outlines the services that the child will receive during the year to help him or her achieve specified performance goals.
Functional analysis. This practice involves an examination of the antecedents and consequences of inappropriate behavior to identify the purpose the behavior may serve for the learner. Functional analysis is frequently followed by positive behavioral support, a systematic intervention to alter those behaviors.
An inclusive classroom. Inclusion refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in neighborhood schools and with nondisabled peers to the extent possible. Students are provided with the necessary support services to ensure success. Additional accommodations may be necessary to support the learning of students for whom English is not a first language, including:
Bilingual education programs. These programs allow students to study most content areas in their heritage languages while taking dedicated English-language classes. This type of program can be helpful for students because it reduces the memory load — they can concentrate on the subject matter more than the language itself.
Immersion programs. These programs involve instruction almost exclusively in English. Research suggests that most students in immersion programs become proficient in English fairly quickly and they can thus keep up in the other subjects.
Supporting dialectical differences. As noted previously, dialects are often not considered acceptable in the classroom or in written work. Teachers should work to help students understand when dialectical variations are most appropriate.
Important Terms that Related to Students as Diverse Learners
Many of the following definitions come from the glossary in Ormrod, J. (2009). Essentials of Educational Psychology (2nd ed., pp. G1−G5). Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here. Some definitions come from Heward, W.L. (2009).Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. (9th Ed., pp. 18-19, 30, and G1-G15)). Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here.
Ability grouping. The practice of placing students in groups based on academic ability or achievement.
African American English. Dialect of some African American communities characterized by certain pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical constructions different from those of Standard English.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, The (ADA). Legislation in the United States that extends civil rights protection of persons with disabilities to private-sector employment, all public services, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunication including physical accessibility and the removal of barriers to hotels, restaurants, grocery stores, and parks if that can be accomplished without great difficulty or expense.
Antecedent stimulus. Stimulus that increases the likelihood that a particular response will follow.
Assessment. Process of observing a sample of a student’s behavior and drawing inferences about the student’s knowledge and abilities.
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Disorder marked by inattention, inability to inhibit inappropriate thoughts and behaviors, or both.
Autism spectrum disorders. Disorders marked by impaired social cognition, social skills, and social interaction, presumably due to a brain abnormality; extreme forms often associated with significant cognitive and linguistic delays and highly unusual behaviors.
Classroom climate. Overall psychological atmosphere of the classroom.
Cognitive style. Characteristic way in which a learner tends to think about a task and process new information; typically comes into play automatically rather than by choice.
Crystallized intelligence. Knowledge and skills accumulated from prior experience, schooling, and culture.
Cultural bias. Extent to which assessment tasks either offend or unfairly penalize some students because of their ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status.
Cultural mismatch. Situation in which a child’s home culture and the school culture hold conflicting expectations for the child’s behavior.
Culture. Behaviors and belief systems that members of a long-standing social group share and pass along to successive generations.
Culture shock. Sense of confusion when a student encounters a culture with behavioral expectations very different from those previously learned.
Dialect. Form of a language that has certain unique pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical structures and is characteristic of a particular region or ethnic group.
Differentiated instruction. Practice of individualizing instructional methods, and possibly also individualizing specific content and instructional goals, to align with each student’s existing knowledge, skills, and needs.
Distributed intelligence. Idea that people act more “intelligently” when they have physical, symbolic, or social assistance.
Due process. The principle that government must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person.
Emotional and behavioral disorders. Emotional states and behaviors that consistently and significantly disrupt academic learning and performance.
Entity view of intelligence. Belief that intelligence is a “thing” that is relatively permanent and unchangeable.
Ethnic group. People who have common historical roots, values, beliefs, and behaviors and who share a sense of interdependence.
Ethnic identity. Awareness of one’s membership in a particular ethnic or cultural group, and willingness to adopt behaviors characteristic of the group.
Fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation. Nonbiased, multifactored methods of evaluation to determine if child has disability and needs special education; nondiscriminatory evaluation with regard to race, culture, or native language, with placement decisions made on basis of multiple test scores and observations.
Fluid intelligence. Ability to acquire knowledge quickly and adapt effectively to new situations.
Free and appropriate public education (FAPE). Special education and related services that (a) have been provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction and without charge; (b) meet the standards of the state educational agency; (c) include an appropriate preschool, elementary, or secondary school education in the state involved; and (d) are provided in conformity with the individualized education program.
Functional analysis. Examination of inappropriate behavior and its antecedents and consequences to determine one or more purposes (functions) that the behavior might serve for the learner.
g Theoretical general factor in intelligence that influences one’s ability to learn in a wide variety of contexts.
Giftedness. Unusually high ability in one or more areas, to the point where students require special educational services to help them meet their full potential.
Group differences. Consistently observed differences (on average) among diverse groups of students (e.g., students of different genders or ethnic backgrounds).
Inclusion. The practice of educating all students, including those with severe and multiple disabilities, in neighborhood schools and general education classrooms.
Incremental view of intelligence. Belief that intelligence can improve with effort and practice.
Individual differences. Variability in abilities and characteristics (intelligence, personality, etc.) among students at a particular age and within any group.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). U.S. legislation granting educational rights to people with cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities from birth until age 21; initially passed in 1975, it has been amended and reauthorized in 1997 and again in 2004. IDEA operates under six basic principles: zero reject, nondiscriminatory identification and evaluation, free and appropriate public education, least restrictive environment, due process, and parent and student participation in shared decision making with regard to educational planning.
Individualized education program (IEP). Written document required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 94-142) for every child with a disability; includes statements of present performance, annual goals, instructional objectives, specific educational services needed, extent of participation in the general education program, evaluation procedures, and relevant dates, and must be signed by parents as well as educational personnel.
Intelligence. Ability to modify and adjust behaviors to accomplish new tasks successfully; involves many different mental processes and may vary in nature depending on one’s culture.
Intelligence test. General measure of current cognitive functioning, used primarily to predict academic achievement over the short run.
IQ score. Score on an intelligence test, determined by comparing a student’s performance on the test with the performance of others in the same age group. For most tests, it is a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
Least restrictive environment. Educational setting for special needs child that most closely resembles a regular school program and also meets child’s special educational needs.
Learning. Long-term change in mental representations or associations due to experience.
Learning disability. Deficiency in one or more specific cognitive processes despite relatively normal cognitive functioning in other areas.
Mental retardation. Disability characterized by significantly below-average general intelligence and deficits in practical and social skills.
Multicultural curriculum. Instructional concepts that integrate perspectives and experiences of numerous diverse groups and representing various cultures, ethnicities, ages, gender, and religions.
Multiple Intelligences, Theory of. A theory that claims people are “intelligent” in many different areas, including cognitive, emotional, and social domains.
Norms. In assessment, data regarding the typical performance of various groups of students on a standardized test or other norm-referenced measure of a particular characteristic or ability.
Positive behavioral support (PBS). Systematic intervention that addresses chronic misbehaviors by (a) identifying the purposes those behaviors might serve for a student and (b) providing more appropriate ways for a student to achieve the same ends.
Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973. A federal law that prohibits the denial of participation in, benefits of, or discrimination in any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance because of a documented disability, history of a disability, or the appearance of having a disability.
Standard English. Form of English generally considered acceptable at school, as reflected in textbooks and grammar instruction.
Student at risk. Student who has a high probability of failing to acquire the minimum academic skills necessary for success in the adult world.
Student with special needs. Student who is different enough from peers that he or she requires specially adapted instructional materials and practices.
Subculture. Group that resists the ways of the dominant culture and adopts its own norms for behavior.
Temperament. Genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environments.
Triarchic theory of intelligence. View of intelligence; proponents argue that that intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative, and practical abilities.
Visual-spatial ability. Ability to imagine and mentally manipulate two-and three-dimensional figures.
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