Chapter 3: Student Development and the Learning Process

Learning is defined as “long-term change in mental representations or associations due to experience (Ormrod, 2009). The process of learning begins in utero and continues throughout the lifespan, becoming more directed and purposeful as individuals grow and develop new strategies and skills.

Perspectives on Learning

Educators recognize and debate many different theoretical perspectives on learning. Some theories, such as behaviorist theories, are general learning theories that apply to humans and non-human animals equally. Others, such as information-processing theory, largely address human behavior and thinking. The application of basic learning theories to the field of education enriches and informs teaching, curriculum development, and academic administration.

Five key theories of learning, summarized in Table 3.1, are behaviorism, social learning theory, information-processing theory, constructivism, and sociocultural theory. It is recommended that you review the theories as well as the contributions of the prominent theorists listed.

Adapted from Ormrod, J. (2009). Essentials of educational psychology. (2nd Ed., pp.19-20). Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here.

Behaviorism: Understanding Antecedents and Consequences

Early behaviorist theories focused on the principle of learning by association — when two or more sensations occur together often enough, they become associated.

Classical conditioning occurs when automatic and reflexive responses to stimuli become associated with new stimuli that previously had no effect. In behaviorist terms, the automatic responses are known as unconditioned responses (e.g., reflexive blinking) to unconditioned stimuli (e.g., a puff of air to the eye). When a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a buzzer regularly paired with the puff of air) evokes a conditioned response (e.g., blinking), learning has occurred. A prominent example of classical conditioning is Pavlov’s classic experiment in which dogs were conditioned to salivate when they heard a bell ring.

Operant conditioning occurs as a result of the consequences of behavior. Behaviors that are reinforced are strengthened — they are repeated. Reinforcers can be positive (e.g., presentation of a reward) or negative (e.g., removal of an aversive stimulus). Behaviors that are punished are extinguished; punishments, too can be positive (e.g., presentation of an aversive stimulus) or negative (removal of a positive stimulus). A prominent example of operant conditioning is Skinner’s classic experiment in which rats were conditioned to press a lever to receive food.

Behaviorist theories and tenets are most often applied to classroom management, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3 on Student Motivation and the Learning Environment.

Social Learning Theory: Learning By Watching Others

Social learning theory expanded on early behaviorist theories, including new emphasis on vicarious reinforcement and modeling. A prominent example of social learning is Bandera’s classic experiment in which children observed an adult model acting aggressively toward a toy (the “Bobo doll”). When the model was rewarded for the aggression, children imitated the behaviors toward the doll, but when the model was punished, children did not. Bandura argued that observational learning required that children pay attention to certain behaviors and their consequences and be motivated to repeat those behaviors.

Social learning theory has been further expanded to include cognitive factors in learning — the resulting expansion is known as social cognitive theory. Social cognitive theorists suggest that reinforcers and punishers createexpectations, which then influence behavior. Teachers use principles of social cognitive theory when they clearly specify classroom rules (i.e., expected behaviors that will be reinforced and violations that will be punished).

Information-processing Theory: Conceptions of Memory and Cognitive Processes

Information-processing theorists present a model of the human memory with three major components: sensory register, working memory (sometimes called short-term memory) and long-term memory. Remember that these terms refer to parts of the theoretical model of how human memory works and not physical parts of the human brain. In general, the human memory model and basic cognitive processes underlie most educational practices designed to encourage students to attend to, store, and recall information (i.e., semantic knowledge) as well as to reproduce motor behaviors or enact scripts (i.e., procedural knowledge).

The sensory register holds the information that our senses bring in from the environment. This unprocessed information is held for a very short time—some estimates are one second for visual images and three seconds for auditory stimulation. If we pay attention to the information, it will be transferred to working memory. If not, it will be lost from the memory system.

Working memory includes a storage and a processing system; its components include the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive. Although researchers once argued that, in general, we can hold 5 to 7 chunks of information in working memory at one time, more recent research suggests that working memory capacity is limited to the amount of information we can rehearse subvocally (i.e., in our heads, not necessarily with conscious awareness) in approximately 3 seconds. In working memory, information is either processed enough that it is stored in long-term memory or it is lost.

Long-term memory supposedly has a limitless capacity and can hold information perhaps indefinitely. Many researchers believe that the more information we have stored on a particular topic, the easier it is to remember new information about that topic. When we store information in long-term memory and are able to retrieve it, we say that we have “learned” that information. Generally, the more deeply we process information in working memory and the more we connect it with what we already know, the more likely we are to move that information into long term memory.

Some common methods used to try to move information into long-term memory include

- Rehearsal
- Meaningful learning
- Elaboration
- Organization
- Visual imagery
- Mnemonics

Contemporary theories of cognitive psychology go beyond information processing to include new research exploring the neurological foundations of learning and memory. Specifically, researchers are systematically mapping the areas of the brain most active for particular tasks. Among the “hot” topics in this area are localization of function to specific hemispheres, lobes, or parts of the brain; the way neurons grow and communicate via synapses; and neural imaging.

Constructivism: Creating Knowledge from Observations and Experiences

We do not simply take information from the world around us and store it, as is, in our memories. We usually use what we already know to interpret and understand new information. So, our new knowledge is usually constructed from what we already know—prior knowledge—and the new information. Constructivist theory is grounded in the philosophy of John Dewey, the leader of the progressive education movement in America and an early advocate of inquiry learning.

For the classroom teacher, the basic tenets of knowledge construction are foundational: Instruction should be student centered, involve problem solving, and require students to interact socially and environmentally. Additionally, teachers should remember that each learner has unique prior knowledge, provide students with the opportunity to interpret and elaborate, and encourage students to view errors as opportunities to learn.

Piaget’s Conception of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is perhaps the most influential constructivist theory. Piaget argued that our understanding of the world is organized into schemes, which he defined as organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment. For example, we have schemes for riding a bike, adding and subtracting numbers, the concept family, and so on. We use these schemes to help us interpret and respond to the world.

New information is adapted into existing schemes through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when people deal with a new experience in a manner that is consistent with a present scheme. For example, a young child may have a scheme for the concept “dog” that is based on the neighbor’s large black lab. For the child, dogs are big, hairy, friendly, and they bark. Sitting outside in his stroller one day, he sees a collie. His mother points to it and says, “dog.” The collie is big and hairy and barks. The child says, “dog,” even though the collie is a different color, not quite as big as the lab, and has a longer, narrower snout. Note that assimilation requires rigid adherence to an established scheme and can sometimes lead to errors and misconceptions (e.g., a coyote isn’t a dog).

Accommodation is required when people must incorporate a new experience by modifying an old scheme or forming a new scheme. For example, a chihuahua does not fit the child’s existing scheme for dog. For the child to accept it as a dog, he must adjust the “dog” scheme to include small dogs. The period of flux when individuals are attempting to adjust prior schemes with new experiences that do not fit into their existing schemes is known as disequilibrium, and the process of moving from disequilibrium to a new state of learning is known as equilibration.

Piaget’s theory detailing four stages of cognitive development — sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational — has been extremely influential in the fields of developmental and educational psychology. See Table 3.2.

Adapted from Ormrod, J. (2009). Essentials of educational psychology (2nd Ed, p. 149) Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here.

Sociocultural Theory: Scaffolding through the Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky proposed that social interactions with more knowledgeable partners can aid in learning and even accelerate cognitive development. Vygotsky’s concept of the Zone of Proximal Development implies an optimal time for individuals to learn. This Zone is an area where students, with assistance from more knowledgeable others, can grasp ideas that they would otherwise not be able to understand and solve problems that they would otherwise not be able to solve. It is the figurative space between

1. Someone’s actual level of development or competence, where she can understand concepts and perform tasks without anyone else’s help; and
2. The level of development or competence, where, even with the assistance of someone else, she cannot understand concepts or perform tasks.

The social aspect of Vygotsky’s theory hinges on the interaction between learners and mentors (or students and teachers) in the Zone of Proximal Development. The support provided by experienced mentors is known as scaffolding— Jerome Bruner used this term to describe the support that learners need when faced with a task that presents too much of a challenge for the student to accomplish alone.

Sociocultural theory has many applications to teaching. For example, to maximize effectiveness, teachers can:

- Relate new knowledge to prior knowledge
- Design the curriculum so that tasks develop from less to more complex as the student becomes increasingly sophisticated
- Offer apprenticeships, which consist of working with an expert who guides thinking and planning how to perform a task
- Encourage interaction with peers, including having similar others explain concepts and justify ideas.

Perspectives on Development

Whereas principles of learning focus on both long-term and short-term changes in behaviors and information storage, principles of development are used to explain changes in physical, cognitive, and social-emotional behaviors. Although development generally refers to changes across (any) age, many researchers concentrate their study specifically on infancy, childhood, and adolescence. This discussion follows that trend, which is most appropriate for teachers intending careers in K-12 education. Table 3.3 presents five theoretical perspectives on development.

Used with permission from Ormrod, J. (2009). Essentials of educational psychology (2nd Ed, pp. 19-20). Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here.

Development: Change Over Time

When addressing developmental change in children and adolescents, researchers and educators usually focus on 3 key domains (i.e., physical, cognitive, and socioemotional) and 5 continuous developmental periods (i.e., infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence, and late adolescence). The distinguishing characteristics of each period are shown in Table 3.4; note, however, that a full discussion is beyond the scope of this tutorial.

Adapted from McDevitt, T.M., & Ormrod, J.E. (2010). Child development and education (4th Ed, pp. 24-25). Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here.

Merging Learning Theory, Developmental Theory, and Educational Practice

Good teachers can integrate learning theory with developmental theory to guide educational practice. For example, identifying the appropriate zone of proximal development for students at a particular cognitive or social level is a necessary step for effective curricular development and classroom management. In a sense, development occurs in part through learning, and learning is constrained in part by development.

The taxonomy of educational objectives developed by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues is an important example that shows how these ideas can be merged successfully. This taxonomy, which is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 6 of this tutorial, includes educational objectives from the three main domains of development (i.e., socioemotional, cognitive, and physical/psychomotor). For more than 50 years, since its publication, this taxonomy has guided educational planning, instruction, and assessment for students at all levels, from preschool through post-secondary education. It remains one of the most significant educational writings of the 20th century.

Important Terms that Relate to Learning Theory and Development

Most definitions come from the glossary in Ormrod, J. (2008). Educational psychology (6th Ed, pp. G1-G8). Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here. A few definitions come from the glossary of Woolfolk, A. (2009) Educational psychology (11th Ed, pp.553-562). Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. To purchase a copy of this book, click here.

Accommodation. Responding to a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one.

Apprenticeship. Mentorship in which a learner works intensively with an experienced adult to learn how to perform complex new skills.

Assimilation. Responding to and possibly interpreting a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme.

Attention. Focusing of mental processes on particular stimuli.

Authentic activity. Approach to instruction similar to one students might encounter in the outside world.

Behaviorism. Theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships, and motivation is often the result of deficit-based drives. Adherents to this perspective are called behaviorists.

Bloom’s taxonomy. Taxonomy of six cognitive processes, varying in complexity, that lessons might be designed to foster.

Classical conditioning. Form of learning in which a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time.

Cognitive modeling. Demonstrating how to think about as well as how to do a task.

Community of learners. Class in which teacher and students actively and collaboratively work to create a body of knowledge and help one another learn.

Comprehension monitoring. Process of checking oneself to be sure one understands and remembers newly acquired information.

Concept map. Diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic.

Conceptual change. Revision of one’s understanding of a topic in response to new information.

Concrete operations stage. Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is limited to concrete reality.

Conditioned response (CR). Response that begins to be elicited by a particular (conditioned) stimulus through classical conditioning.

Conditioned stimuli (CS). Stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response through classical conditioning.

Conservation. Realization that if nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement.

Constructivism. Theoretical perspective proposing that learners construct (rather than absorb) a body of knowledge from their experiences—knowledge that may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality. Adherents to this perspective are called constructivists.

Declarative knowledge. Knowledge related to “what is”—that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be.

Developmental milestone. Appearance of a new, developmentally more advanced behavior.

Disequilibrium. Inability to explain new events with existing schemes; tends to be accompanied by a sense of discomfort.

Elaboration. Cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know.

Encoding. Changing the format of information being stored in memory in order to remember it more easily.

Equilibrium. State of being able to explain new events with existing schemes.

Formal operations stage. Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as to concrete objects, and more sophisticated scientific and mathematical reasoning processes emerge.

Guided participation. A child’s performance, with guidance and support, of an activity in the adult world.

Individual constructivism. Theoretical perspective that focuses on how people, as individuals, construct meaning from the events around them.

Information processing theory. Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners mentally think about (process) new information and events and how such processes change with development.

Long-term memory. Component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time.

Maturation. Unfolding of genetically controlled changes as a child develops.

Meaningful learning. Cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know.

Metacognition. Knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes, as well as conscious attempts to engage in behaviors and thought processes that increase learning and memory.

Mnemonic. Memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember a specific piece of information.

Modeling. Demonstrating a behavior for another; also, observing and imitating another’s behavior.

Operant conditioning. Form of learning in which a response increases in frequency as a result of being followed by reinforcement.

Overgeneralization. Overly broad view of the objects or events that a concept includes.

Preoperational stage. Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways.

Prior knowledge activation. Process of reminding learners of things they have already learned relative to a new topic.

Procedural knowledge. Knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill).

Punishment. Consequence that decreases the frequency of the response it follows.

Reciprocal causation. Mutual cause-and-effect relationships among environment, behavior, and personal variables as these three factors influence learning and development.

Rehearsal. Cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it.

Reinforcement. Act of following a response with a reinforcer.

Retrieval. Process of “finding” information previously stored in memory.

Rote learning. Learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it.

Scaffolding. Support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her zone of proximal development.

Schema. General understanding of what an object or event is typically like.

Scheme. In Piaget’s theory, organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment.

Semantic knowledge. Knowledge of the meanings of words and word combinations.

Sensitive period. Genetically determined age range during which a certain aspect of a child’s development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions.

Sensorimotor stage. Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which schemes are based largely on behaviors and perceptions.

Sensory register. Component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time (perhaps one to two seconds).

Spiral curriculum. Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time.

Situated learning and cognition. Knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited if any use in other contexts.

Social learning theory. Theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study. Initially, this perspective focused largely on stimulus-response

relationships. More recently, it has come to incorporate cognitive processes as well, hence its alternative name social cognitive theory.

Social constructivism. Theoretical perspective that focuses on people’s collective efforts to impose meaning on the world.

Stage theory. Theory that depicts development as a series of relatively discrete periods (stages).

Transfer. Phenomenon in which something a person has learned at one time affects how the person learns or performs in a later situation.

Unconditioned response (UCR). Response that is elicited by a particular (unconditioned) stimulus without prior learning.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning.

Undergeneralization. Overly narrow view of the objects or events that a concept includes.

Vicarious punishment. Phenomenon in which a response decreases in frequency when another person is observed being punished for that response.

Vicarious reinforcement. Phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response.

Visual imagery. Process of forming mental pictures of objects or ideas.

Working memory. Component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD). Range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.