An introduction to the grammar of Sumerian - CORE 

Foxvog, Daniel A. (2016) Introduction to Sumerian Grammar. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative https://cdli.ucla.edu/?q=cuneiform-digital-library-preprints

Sumerian - omniglot.com 

The Language Gulper: Sumerian Language - languagesgulper.com

Sumerian Language Page - sumerian.org 

• Sumerian Lexicon, Version 3.0 by John A. Halloran - sumerian.org 

• The Proto-Sumerian Language Invention Process by John A. Halloran 

UD.GAL.NUN versus 'Normal' Sumerian: Two Literatures or One? (1992) by Joachim Krecher - academia.edu

MEMRISE - memrise.com - Language learning software that contains several Sumerian courses of various quality.

Naming

Kingship in the Early Mesopotamian Onomasticon 2800–2200 BCE - uu.diva-portal.org

Mathematics

Sexagesimal Calculations in Ancient Sumer (2022) by Kazuo Muroi - arxiv.org - An elegant consideration of Sumerian sexagesimal calculation.

The Origin of the Mystical Number Seven in Mesopotamian Culture: Division by Seven in the Sexagesimal Number System (2014) by Kazuo Muroi - arxiv.org 

Kazuo Muroi articles on arxiv.org

Literature

The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL) - etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk - Unabridged and composite texts of Sumerian literature. Highlights: Enlil and Sud, Nanna-Suen's journey to Nibru, The lament for Sumer and Urim,  

The Literature of Ancient Sumer (2006) by J. Black, G. Cunningham, E. Robson & G. Zólyomi - books.google.com

"In the day" literature 

In the day literature starts with or has within its first few lines an "in the day" reference to an ancient time, often to creation before humans. The ancient review is often only tangentially related to the rest of the story - just like the "In the day" of Genesis 2:4b-7 is only tangentially related to the second vision of creation.

From the Nibru catalogue, 0.2.01 (N2):

• entries 7, 20, 21 - ud re-a match incipits to four known texts:

  • • Enki and Ninmaḫ, 1.1.2

    • Enki's journey to Nibru, 1.1.4 

    • Gilgameš, Enkidu and the nether world, 1.8.1.4 

    • The instructions of Šuruppag, 5.6.1 

  • entry 27 - ud ul re-ta = "In those ancient days..." - The debate between Bird and Fish, 5.3.5

  • entry 38 - ud ul an ki-ta incipit to Lugalbanda in the mountain cave, 1.8.2.1 

The Barton Cylinder - cdli.ucla.edu - epsd2 - ud ri₂-a ud ri₂-še₃ 

• "Those days were faraway days, indeed! Those nights were faraway nights, indeed! Those years were faraway years, indeed!"

• Several themes relate to both visions of creation. Column 4 is a difficult to translate section featuring "edin."

The building of Ninĝirsu's temple 2.1.7 - "On the day when in heaven and earth the fates had been decided" Given that fates were decided at dawn and the text is accouting "a nocturnal vision" of Gudea, the ruler of Lagash then maybe it should read, "At daylight (ie. dawn) the fates of heaven and earth were inscribed."

Crisostomo, Jay (2017) The Sumerian Discourse Markers u₄-ba and u₄-bi-a. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 69: 49–  66. doi: 10.5615/jcunestud.69.2017.0049 - journals.uchicago.edu  PDF

Enlil

The Lament for Sumer and Urim - ETCSL 2.2.3 - Theological description of the fall of the 3rd and last dynasty of Ur - the end of Sumer. When everything goes to hell, only four gods really mattered - An, Enlil, Enki, and Ninḫursaĝa (ie. Ninmah). According to the story, the rest skipped town. While the creating triad and Ninmah - representing the land not covered by brackish waters - decide in union to destroy Sumer, the figurehead of destruction is Enlil as it is in other texts. The destruction is analogized to storms and floods, but in reality, it is drought, famine, salting of the plain (ie. eden), and conquering neighbors that caused the destruction.

1-2. To overturn the appointed times, to obliterate the divine plans, the storms gather to strike like a flood.

3-11. An, Enlil, Enki and {Ninḫursaĝa} {(2 mss. have instead:) Ninmaḫ} have decided its fate -- to overturn the divine powers of Sumer, to lock up the favourable reign in its home, to destroy the city, to destroy the house

Enlil the destroyer:

• 22-26. after An had frowned upon all the lands, after Enlil had looked favourably on an enemy land, after Nintur had scattered the creatures that she had created, after Enki had altered the course of the Tigris and Euphrates, after Utu had cast his curse on the roads and highways;

27-37. so as to obliterate the divine powers of Sumer, to change its preordained plans, to alienate the divine powers of the reign of kingship of Urim, to humiliate the princely son in his house E-kiš-nu-ĝal, to break up the unity of the people of Nanna, numerous as ewes; to change the food offerings of Urim, the shrine of magnificent food offerings; that its people should no longer dwell in their quarters, that they should be given over to live in an inimical place; that Šimaški and Elam, the enemy, should dwell in their place; that its shepherd, in his own palace, should be captured by the enemy, that Ibbi-Suen should be taken to the land Elam in fetters, that from Mount Zabu on the edge of the sea to the borders of Anšan, like a swallow that has flown from its house, he should never return to his city;

• 69-78. The people, in their fear, breathed only with difficulty. The storm immobilised them, the storm did not let them return. There was no return for them, the storm did not retreat. This is what Enlil, the shepherd of the black-headed people, did: Enlil, to destroy the loyal households, to decimate the loyal men, to put the evil eye on the sons of the loyal men, on the first-born, Enlil then sent down Gutium from the mountains. Their advance was as the flood of Enlil that cannot be withstood. The great wind of the countryside filled the countryside, it advanced before them. The extensive countryside was destroyed, no one moved about there. 

• 163-173. On that day the word of Enlil was an attacking storm. Who could fathom it? The word of Enlil was destruction on the right, was …… on the left. This is what Enlil, the one who determines destinies, did: Enlil brought down the Elamites, the enemy, from the highlands. 

• 260. This is what Enlil, who decides the fates, did: Again he sent down the Elamites, the enemy, from the mountains 

• 292-302. Enlil threw open the door of the grand gate to the wind. In Urim no one went to fetch food, no one went to fetch water. Its people rushed around like water being poured from a well. Their strength ebbed away, they could not even go on their way. Enlil afflicted the city with an evil famine. He afflicted the city with that which destroys cities, that which destroys houses. He afflicted the city with that which cannot be withstood with weapons. He afflicted the city with dissatisfaction and treachery. In Urim, which was like a solitary reed, there was not even fear. Its people, like fish being grabbed in a pond, sought to escape. Its young and old lay spread about, no one could rise. 

The moon god Nanna Suen asks his father why the destruction:

• 340-349. Suen wept to his father Enlil: "O father who begot me, why have you turned away from my city which was built (?) for you? O Enlil, why have you turned away from my Urim which was built (?) for you? The boat with first-fruit offerings no longer brings first-fruit offerings to the father who begot him. Your food offerings can no longer be brought to Enlil in Nibru. The en priests of the countryside and city have been carried off by phantoms. Urim, like a city raked by a hoe, is to be counted as a ruin-mound. The Du-ur, Enlil's resting-place, has become a haunted shrine. O Enlil, gaze upon your city, an empty wasteland. Gaze upon your city Nibru, an empty wasteland." 

• 350-356. "The dogs of Urim no longer sniff at the base of the city wall. The man who used to drill large wells scratches the ground in the market place. My father who begot me, enclose in your embrace my city which is all alone. Enlil, return to your embrace my Urim which is all alone. Enclose in your embrace my E-kiš-nu-ĝal which is all alone. May you bring forth offspring in Urim, may you multiply its people. May you restore the divine powers of Sumer that have been forgotten." 

• 360-370. Enlil then answered his son Suen: "There is lamentation in the haunted city, reeds of mourning grow there. In its midst the people pass their days in sighing. Oh Nanna, the noble son ……, why do you concern yourself with crying? The judgment uttered by the assembly cannot be reversed. The word of An and Enlil knows no overturning. Urim was indeed given kingship but it was not given an eternal reign. From time immemorial, since the Land was founded, until people multiplied, who has ever seen a reign of kingship that would take precedence for ever? The reign of its kingship had been long indeed but had to exhaust itself. O my Nanna, do not exert yourself in vain, abandon your city." 

• 449-459. In his grief Suen approached his father. He went down on his knee in front of Enlil, the father who begot him: "O father who begot me, how long will the enemy eye be cast upon my account, how long ……? The lordship and the kingship that you bestowed ……, Father Enlil, the one who advises with just words, the wise words of the Land ……, your inimical judgment ……, look into your darkened heart, terrifying like waves. O Father Enlil, the fate that you have decreed cannot be explained, as for my hairstyle (?) of lordship and the diadem with which I was crowned." …… he put on a garment of mourning.

• 460-474. Enlil then provided a favourable response to his son Suen: "My son, the city built for you in joy and prosperity was given to you as your reign. Destroying the city, overthrowing its great wall and battlements: all this too is part of that reign. …… the black, black days of the reign that has been your lot. As for dwelling in your home, the E-temen-ni-guru, that was properly built -- indeed Urim shall be rebuilt in splendour, the people shall bow down to you. There is to be bounty at its base, there is to be grain. There is to be splendour at its top, the sun shall rejoice there. Let an abundance of grain embrace its table. May Urim, the city whose fate was pronounced by An, be restored for you." Having pronounced his blessing, Enlil raised his head toward the heavens: "May the land, south and highland, be organised for Nanna. May the roads of the mountains be set in order for Suen. Like a cloud hugging the earth, they shall submit to him. By order of An and Enlil it shall be conferred."

• 475-477A. Father Nanna came into his city of Urim with head raised high. The youth Suen could enter again into the E-kiš-nu-ĝal. Ningal refreshed herself in her sacred living quarters.

Michalowski, P. (1989). The Lamentation Over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur. United States: Eisenbrauns.

Enlil and Nam-zid-tara - ETCSL 5.7.1 - Enlil is represented by a raven. Names of gods and men are significant in Sumerian thinking. Enlil blesses Nam-zid-tara (Well-blessed) - "Your fate shall be assigned according to your name"  

Noise = discord, injustice, sin

A praise poem of Lipit-Eštar (Lipit-Eštar B), ETCSL 2.5.5.2 - lines 51-56 

Among joyful songs of the heart, in an auspicious regnal year, the prince, the powerful prince surpassing in greatness and majesty, your father Išme-Dagan, king of the Land, made the foundations of his throne firm for you. On the orders of An and Enlil, {he} {(1 ms. has instead:) you} silenced the loud (?) strife of the foreign countries. 

Kings List

AS 11. The Sumerian King List by Thorkild Jacobsen - oi.uchicago.edu - Chicago: University of Chricago Press, 1939. Pp. xvi + 216; 1 plate, 2 tables

Editorial Note on the Apkallu and the Roadmap Ahead by Estéban Trujillo de Gutiérrez - therealsamizdat.com - Sources on the Apkallu or "wise ones". Probable equivalents of the biblical Nephilem.

http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/20340.pdf

Theosis and Heaven

The Flood Story, Segment E - ETCSL 1.7.4 - An and Enlil "granted [Zi-ud-sura] life like a god, they brought down to him eternal life."

Lugalbanda in the mountain cave, 1.8.2.1 

123-127. "If our brother rises like Utu from bed, then the god who has smitten him will step aside and, when he eats this food, when he drinks (?) this, will make his feet stable. May he bring him over the high places of the mountains to brick-built Kulaba."

128-132. "But if Utu calls our brother to the holy place, the valued place [ki kug ki kal-kal-la-aš], the health of his limbs will leave (?) him. Then it will be up to us, when we come back from Aratta, to bring our brother's body to brick-built Kulaba."

Serpents

Transtigridian Snake Gods (1997) by F A M Wiggerman - academia.edu  

Inana and Ebiḫ - ETCSL 1.3.2 

80-82. "You have placed me at the right hand of the king in order to destroy rebel lands: may he, with my aid, smash heads like a falcon in the foothills of the mountain, King An, and may I …… your name throughout the land like a thread."

83-88. "May he destroy the lands as a snake in a crevice. May he make them slither around like a saĝkal snake coming down from a mountain. May he establish control over the mountain, examine it and know its length. May he go out on the holy campaign of An and know its depth. I want to surpass the other deities, since the Anuna deities have ……."

89-95. "How can it be that the mountain did not fear me in heaven and on earth, that the mountain did not fear me, Inana, in heaven and on earth, that the mountain range of Ebiḫ, the mountain, did not fear me in heaven and on earth? Because it did not act appropriately on its own initiative, because it did not put its nose to the ground, because it did not rub its lips in the dust, may I fill my hand with the soaring mountain range and make it learn fear of me."

Lugalbanda in the mountain cave, 1.8.2.1 - Sickness causes Lugalbanda to be like snake.

71-86. Lugalbanda, the eighth of them, …… was washed in water. In awed silence he went forward, …… he marched with the troops. When they had covered half the way, covered half the way, a sickness befell him there, 'head sickness' befell him. He jerked like a snake dragged by its head with a reed; his mouth bit the dust, like a gazelle caught in a snare. No longer could his hands return the hand grip, no longer could he lift his feet high. Neither king nor contingents could help him. In the great mountains, crowded together like a dustcloud over the ground, they said: "Let them bring him to Unug." But they did not know how they could bring him. "Let them bring him to Kulaba." But they did not know how they could bring him. As his teeth chattered (?) in the cold places of the mountains, they brought him to a warm place there. 

Commentary

Sumerian Mythology (1961) by Samuel Noah Kramer - sacred-texts.com - pgs. 30-32

Polonsky, Janice, "The rise of the Sun God and the determination of destiny in ancient Mesopotamia" (2002). Dissertations available from ProQuest. AAI3073042. https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI3073042 

Robson, Eleanor (2016) 'Celestial & terrestrial divination', Knowledge and Power, Higher Education Academy

Veldhuis, N., 'The theory of knowledge and the practice of celestial divination', in A. Annus (ed.), Divination and interpretation of signs in the ancient world (Oriental Institute Publications, 6), Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010, pp. 77–90. PDF - oi.uchicago.edu

Woods, C. (2009). At the Edge of the World: Cosmological Conceptions of the Eastern Horizon in Mesopotamia. Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions, 9(2), 183–239. https://doi.org/10.1163/156921109X12520501747912 - academia.edu

Words

Adam 𒀉𒁮

Adam “habitation” or settlement from Lagash II on, used most during OB. 𒀉𒁮 a₂-dam 𒀉𒁮𒀉𒁮 a₂-dam-a₂-dam 𒈕 dim₃    Akk. namû  http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0023525 

uš₂ "blood, gore"

Eden 𒂔

𒋢𒂔𒆠 su-bir₄ki   EDIIIb on = šubartum /Subartu = upper Mesopotamia epsd2/sux/Subir[1] (upenn.edu) 

• OB Nippur Ura 05  dcclt (upenn.edu) 

306 a-ku-uzki  Akusum

307 a-ku-uz eden-naki  Akusum-of-the-Steppe

308 a-ku-uz su-bir₄ki  Akusum-of-Subartu

311 ma-da su-bir₄ki  the land of Subartu

• K 02035a + K 04337 dcclt (upenn.edu) 

o ii 6'  su-bir₄ki  su-bar-⸢tum⸣  Subartu

o ii 7'  su-piriŋki  su-bar-⸢tum⸣  "flesh of a piriŋ creature" = Subartu

o ii 8'  sa-piriŋki  su-bar-tum  "sinew of a piriŋ creature" = Subartu

o ii 9'  ḫu-bu-urki  su-bar-tum  Hubur = Subartu

Enki  𒀭𒂗𒆠

𒆠𒂗𒄀   ki-en-gi    = "place of the noble lords"; Sumerian for Sumer -  this is just Enki backwards with reeds

Aya [god] 𒀭𒀀𒀀  da-a Divine dawn - Found underneath or with Utu the sun god in god lists and seals. 

• Generally thought the spouse of Utu (Woods 2009), but found on the multilingual Ugaritic copy of the Weidner God List as matching e-ia-an (ie. Ea/Enki) and ku-šar-ru (ie. Kothar). Kothar is thought to be a Canaanite version of the Egyptian god Ptah.

• In the Weidner list, Aya is found underneath the divine day dud and sun god dutu 

• The fates are decided at dawn. Building of Ningiru's temple: 706. "Facing the sunrise, where the fates are decided, he erected the standard of Utu, the Bison head, beside others already there. "

Father 𒀀𒀀  aya 𒀀  aya₂ 𒀀𒅀  a-ia Used when addressing a god as father, particularly An or Enlil

Marshland 𒆹 aya₄

Haia [god] 𒀭𒄩𒉌 dḫa-ia₃ 𒀭𒄩𒀀 dḫa-ia₁₀ Ur III on. Considered a separate god of Enki from at least OB on.

Uri [AKKAD] (GN) 𒌵𒆠 epsd2/sux/Uri[Akkad] URIII OB Post-OB 

The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary - psd.museum.upenn.edu 

• • • amar [YOUNG] (2771x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian, 1st millennium) wr. amar "calf; young, youngster, chick; son, descendant" Akk. būru; māru

    • peš [THICK] (147x: Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian, 1st millennium) wr. peš; peš5; peš4; peš6 "innards; to breathe; grandson; descendant; to give birth (to); (to be) pregnant; pregnancy; to gather; (to be) thick; (to be) wide" Akk. alādu; kabattu; līp līpi; mār māri; mērû; napāšu; šabāšu

    • pešturzi [DESCENDANTS] (2x: Old Babylonian) wr. peš-tur-zi "descendants" Akk. liblibbu

    • šabalbal [DESCENDENT] (8x: Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. šag4-bal-bal; šabalbal "descendent" Akk. liblibbi

    • bilga [FRUIT] (4x: Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. bil2-ga "fresh fruit; male ancestor" Akk. inbu

      • pabilga [RELATION] (14x: Old Babylonian) wr. pa-bil2-ga; pa-bil3-ga; pa4-bil2-ga; pa-bil-ga; pa4-bil-ga; pa4-bi-ga "a kinship term" Akk. abu 

Me 𒈨

• • • išme [STONE] wr. urudiš-me "a stone" Akk. ešmekku

    • me [BEING] wr. me "Being, divine properties enabling cosmic activity; office; (cultic) ordinance" Akk. mû; parşu

    • me [BATTLE] wr. me3; me; me7; me9; mex(AK׊ITA); me11 "battle; combat" Akk. tāhāzu

    • me [BE] wr. me; em; am3 "to be"

    • me [DESIRE] wr. me "desire" Akk. lalû

    • me [REFINE] wr. me "to wash, refine" Akk. mesû 

    • me [SILENCE] wr. me "silence" Akk. qūlu

    • me [STIFFNESS] wr. me "stiffness" Akk. luʾtu

    • Is it coincidence that the Sumerian sign for me 𒈨 is also the sign for defining types of garments called ba?  Akk. nalbašu 

    • meʾe[I]IP   Sux. ŋaʾe[I]IP; anāku 

      • CDLI P229947 HS 1777 Old Babylonian Nippur Lexical List

o ii 4 [[men₂ > ]] * min₃ ME you are/I am (suffixed copula) in the third column language

Beasts of the Field 𒃻𒍣𒅅 𒂔

niŋ₂-zi-ŋal₂ eden-na - oracc.museum.upenn.edu - "animals of the steppe (or plain)" in the composite word list OB Nippur Ura 03  Found in 12 other word lists with variations. 

Living creature 𒃻𒍣𒅅 niŋ₂-zi-ŋal₂  Lag II Akk. nammaštu; nammaštûm; nammaššûm; šiknat napišti

• "thing, possession"   𒃻  niŋ₂  ED IIIa  Akk. bušu; mimma

• "life" or "breath" 𒍣 zi ED IIIa Akk. napištu

• to be (there, at hand, available); to put, to place, to lay down 𒅅  ŋal₂ PC Akk. bašû; šakānu

moving things, animals

Fauna (wild)

Wisdom

ŋeštug, geštu - Ear; wisdom, understanding 𒄑𒌆𒉿  ŋeštug₂ 𒉿  ŋeštug ED IIIa and on Akk. hassu; uznu; uznu; ṭēmu

The Semitic Languages (2nd Edition, 2019) edited by John Huehnergard and Na‘ama Pat-El - vdoc.pub

SEMITIC LANGUAGES (1901) - JewishEncyclopedia.com 

A Structural Grammar of Babylonian (1996) by Giorgio Buccellati - google.com

• Chapter 22 - The Inflection of the Normal State (pgs. 145-155) - 

• Pg. 358 "Within predication, it appears that mimation is indeed a marker of determination.... Outside of predication, one may speculate that mimation might possibly have served a similar function in earlier times, but already in Old Akkadian the presence of inflected forms of the normal state without mimation is rare, and we can only "explain" it as a case of free variation (i.e., we do not in fact explain it). In practice, then, mimation appears to be only a redundant element of the normal state, which comes to be dropped regularly, without any compensatory shift, already by the middle of the second millennium."

Hub page for dcclt/signlists - oracc.museum.upenn.edu - Links to lexicon and cuneiform signing.

Words

Akkadian Dictionary - assyrianlanguages.org

Possible Akkadian equivalents of Hebrew Toledot:

• elēpu  (also : alāpu) [Country → Plants] 1) to sprout , to grow (plant) , to increase (cattle ...), to multiply (descendance, cattle ...) 2) [astronomie] : said of a halo ("agû") 3) in personal names : "grants growth to" ; causes to grow , increases , multiplies 4) Gt : grow into one another , to interlock (fighters, weapons ...) , to intermingled , to intertwine , to entangle , to enmesh 5) Š : to cause to grow , to cause to intermingle (vegetation , fighters) , to increase (descendants , regnal years ...) 6) Št : to flourish , to grow densely

• ilittu : [Human → Family]  1) birth , nativity ; 2) an offspring , a scion , a descendant , a brat , an urchin ; 3) a brood , a descent , a stock / an origin

• • kisittu : [Human → Family]  1) branches , boughs (of trees): branches of ceder (for fuel) , stem of reed , stem of stag's horn ; 2) descent of a person / city

  • Ancestor: abu : [Human → Family]  1) a father ; 2) an ancestor , a forefather

The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD) - oi.uchicago.edu - 21 volumes published from 1956 to 2010. PDF downloads: A v1p1; A v1p2; B v2; D v3; E v4; G v5; H[Het] v6; I/J v7; K v8; L v9; M v10p1; M v10p2; N v11p1; N v11p2; P v12; Q v13; R v14; S v15; S[Tsade] v16; S[Shin] v17p1; S[Shin] v17p2; S[Shin] v17p3; T v18; T[Tet] v19; U/W v20; and Z v21. 

Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts (2005) Rebecca Hasselbach - academia.edu 

• Ur III period is a transition from Old Akkadian to Old Babylonian with elements of both.

Hebrew for Christians - hebrew4christians.coms - A highly recommended site for learning some basic Hebrew and the cultural history in which if flowed.

Hebrew Streams Directory - hebrew-streams.org

• • • “Elohim” in Biblical Context 

    • Ruach Studies

Hebrew Text - bible-researcher.com

• • • Hebrew Alphabet 

    • Table of Alphabets

    • Introduction to the Old Testament of the New English Bible by Sir Godfrey Driver

Biblical Idioms that Have Changed their Meaning in Modern Hebrew - academia.edu

The Oldest Hebrew Script and Language - biblicalarchaeology.org 

Sefaria - sefaria.org - Hebrew commentaries, connections and translations.

Transliteration

Automatic Hebrew Transliteration - alittlehebrew.com 

Transliterating Hebrew: How We Do It at HaYidion - prizmah.org -  

How Sheshonq Became Shishak - baslibrary.org

In Hebrew, the sounds “n” and “m” are what linguists call “weak,” and are sometimes dropped. This is especially true in proper names. For example, we know that the city of Gath was spelled Ginti or Gimti in Egyptian inscriptions. And Hebrew Makkedah was spelled Manqedah in Aramaic.

Canaanite/Phoenician/Paleo-Hebrew

The Phoenician Alphabet - phoenicia.org 

Table of the Phoenician Alphabet

Oldest Hebrew and Samaritan Script and Language were nothing but Phoenician - phoenicia.org - Phoenician=Paleo-Hebrew with an axe to grind. Agree except the article does not discuss the main distinction of the "to be" verbs.

https://lebanonuntravelled.com/king-ahiram-sarcophagus-and-the-alphabet/ Oldest Phoenician script around ~1000 BC

Words

Hebrew Word Lessons - hebrewwordlessons.com - "Understanding the Hebrew Bible one Word at a time." Well written and very often enlightening theological word studies. Highlights:

• • Malak: Messenger, Sent One, ANGEL

  • Satan: ADVERSARY is not a name 

  • Shaddai: Defining the ALMIGHTY

  • Hineni: HERE I AM

Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective - balashon.com - Highlights: ish and isha; 

Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon - New American Standard - biblestudytools.com - Brown, Driver, Briggs, Gesenius Lexicon; which is keyed to the "Theological Word Book of the Old Testament."

Grammar

Chapter 10a – Construct Chain - hebrew.billmounce.com - How genitive constructions work in Hebrew.

http://hebrew.billmounce.com/BasicsBiblicalHebrew-12.pdf 

Chapter 20a – Qal Infinitive Construct

Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar/124. The Various Uses of the Plural-form

Literature

"Hebrew/Israelite Literature" (2009) by Carl Ehrlich - acedemia.edu - Chapter 7 in From an Antique Land: An Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Literature

The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library - deadseascrolls.org.il

The Syriac Institute - bethmardutho.org - Promotes the Syriac language, which is a version of ancient Aramaic.

Hellenosemitica An Ethnic and Cultural Study in West Semitic Impact on Mycenaean Greece

By Michael C. Astour · 1967 The Danaans-Danunians pg.18

• "It is significant that the Aramaic language has not inherited a single word from the Syrian Hittites (while it borrowed a great number of Akkadian and, through Akkadian, even of Sumerian words). This excludes the possibility of any wide diffusion of the H-H [Hittite Heirographic] language among the Syrian populations. The Semitism of the region of Hamath in Central Syria, the very heart of the ancient land of Amurru, cannot be doubted; nevertheless its ruler Urhilina, a contemporary of Shalmaneser III, left inscriptions in the same H-H language as Asitawandas of the Plain of Adana, without even a parallel Canaanite or Aramaic text."

Words

Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon Project - cal.huc.edu 

• • mˀmr, mˀmrˀ  (mēmar, mēmrā)   n.m.  speech 

MEMRA (= "Ma'amar" or "Dibbur," "Logos") by Kaufmann Kohler - jewishencyclopedia.com

The Targums and the Memra/Word of the Lord by Stone Crier - youtube.com

Literature

The Aramaic Targums - bible-researcher.com - Various articles

• • The Jewish Targums by Bruce M. Metzger

Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon Project - cal.huc.edu 

• • mˀmr, mˀmrˀ  (mēmar, mēmrā)   n.m.  speech 

  • CAL Targumic Studies Module 

How Many Egyptian Words Made It into Biblical Hebrew? (2023) by Philologos - mosaicmagazine.com - How little speculation is warranted by Egyptian loan words.

Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions () by Benjamin J. Noonan - bibleinterp.arizona.edu 

• Other Northwest Semitic texts generally lack Egyptian terminology, demonstrating that the high proportions of Egyptian loanwords in the exodus and wilderness narratives are atypical of Northwest Semitic and almost certainly due to a particular historical circumstance that gave rise to the borrowing of so many Egyptian words. The sole exception is Imperial Aramaic, which not surprisingly contains a high proportion of Egyptian loanwords due to the fact that many of its texts were from Egypt. (62-63)

• ...at least some of the Egyptian loanwords in the exodus and wilderness narratives entered Hebrew during the Late Bronze Age, precisely when we would expect them to have been borrowed if the events of these narratives really occurred. (67-68)

Hurrian

A Grammar of Modern Indo-European, Second Edition - books.google.com - By Carlos Quiles, Fernando Lopez-Menchero (2009)

MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN - academiaprisca.org - 

Linguistics Research Center at University of Texas at Austin - liberalarts.utexas.edu

• Early Indo-European Online - A series of online lessons for various ancient Indo-European Languages.

• IE Lexicon: Semantic Index - Lexicon of Indo-European indexed by how a word is used.

Hittite

Luwian

Çineköy inscription - Luwian hieroglyphics and Phoenician. Confirming that before the rise of the great state, "Syria" referenced the Assyrian homeland rather than the area of the modern state.

Karatepe bilingual - Also called the Azatiwada inscription.  

Median

• xšaθra- (realm; kingship): This Median word (attested in *xšaθra-pā- and continued by Middle Persian šahr "land, country; city") is an example of words whose Greek form (known as romanized "satrap" from Gk. σατράπης satrápēs) mirrors, as opposed to the tradition,[N 3] a Median rather than an Old Persian form (also attested, as xšaça- and xšaçapāvā) of an Old Iranian word.[63]

Persian

KJV PARALLEL BIBLE - kjvparallelbible.org - Site that compares the Greek Textus Receptus used in the original King James Version to the modern Greek Critical Text showing just how inconsequential differences are between them. Though important, this shows the work of textual criticism is "a tempest in a rather small teapot."

Dave Black's New Testament Greek Portal - newtestamentgreekportal.blogspot.com 

Electronic Edition of Codex Sinaiticus -  Codex Sinaiticus, a manuscript of the Christian Bible written in the middle of the fourth century, contains the earliest complete copy of the Christian New Testament.

THEOI GREEK MYTHOLOGY - theoi.com

• Titan Prometheus 

• Pandora 

• Titan Epimetheus 

Josephus

Chief Priests, Sadducees, Pharisees, and Sanhedrin in Luke-Acts and Josephus (2009) by Steve Mason - academia.edu - Comparison of perspectives on first century Jewish groups. In particular, Luke-Acts presents the Pharisees as an outsider while Josephus identifies with the Pharisees.

The Slavonic Version of the Jewish War of Josephus (2011) by Etienne Nodet - academia.edu - Rather than a Christian forgery, argues convincingly that:

The Old-Russian version of the War, which includes non-Christian passages on Herod, John the Baptist and Jesus, is a translation of the first Greek edition by Josephus, before the polishing work of his assistants-censors.

Inerrancy vs. Infallibility

Five Views on Biblical Inerrancy: A Review - thinktheology.co.uk - By Jamie Franklin | Friday 31 January 2014

Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy with Exposition - Though I approach, I will never be able to arrive at an inerrant view. Disagreements: 

• 1. Inerrancy could only apply to the relatively few literalistic passages purporting to record precise data in the Bible, such as geographical descriptions or chronology relative to regnal events. It is extremely unclear to me how fallible humans using literary devices and phenomenological accounts could be inerrant in the CSBI sense. How do you have inerrant irony?! 

  2. One must allow for the natural distortion in second-hand accounts. In general, it seems the biblical authors are aware of this distortion and often deflect it by using various literary devices such as numerology, analogy and irony.

INERRANCY AND CHURCH HISTORY: IS INERRANCY A MODERN INVENTION? - tms.edu - Many of the quotes of Church Fathers support infallibility that approaches inerrancy, but not CSBI inerrancy.

Hebrew Word Lessons - hebrewwordlessons.com - "Understanding the Hebrew Bible one Word at a time." Well written and very often enlightening theological word studies by Sarah E. Fisher.  Highlights:

• • • Hineni: HERE I AM

    • Malak: Messenger, Sent One, ANGEL

    • Satan: ADVERSARY is not a name 

    • Shaddai: Defining the ALMIGHTY

    • Sheol: the GRAVE? Gehenna? Hades? HELL? 

The Logos

The Onomastic Evidence for Bronze-Age West Semitic (2004) - jstor.org - O'Connor, M. (2004). Journal of the American Oriental Society, 124(3), 439-470. doi:10.2307/4132275