2014 - WHAT SCIENTIFIC IDEA IS READY FOR RETIREMENT? Languages Conditioning Worldview by John McWhorter - edge.org - I'm not sure if I agree, but it is an interesting challenge to an assumption that has only been superficially tested.
Open Access Ancient Language Textbooks, OERs, and Primers - ancientworldonline.blogspot.com
Swadesh list
Militarev, Alexander. (2012). Addenda and conclusion of an etymology-based 100-item wordlist for Semitic languages. 10.31826/9781463235017-008.
Thoth's Pill - an Animated History of Writing - youtube.com (47:24) - Introduction to writing systems for pre-teens on up.
Thoth's Pill - fibs, fables, fans and extras - Errata and missed content.
(pgs 17-18) "- for writing emerges at the end of the Uruk period, appearing just as the sociopolitical institutions that gave rise to it collapse. Writing here, it can be argued, did not give rise to complex bureaucracy, but was a function, or end result, of it."
glottographic = writing represents speech; semasiographic = signs representing ideas.
(20) "Prior to the invention of writing, the transmission of information and knowledge was the purview of oral traditions. The invention of writing would not immediately change this" Rebus not used until early 3rd mil.
(21) logogram = graph for word; morpheme = meaningful units: affixes and lexemes. "People think in terms of morphemes and syllables... [rather than] individual sounds"
With allomorphs, "writing systems tend not to indicate phonetic variation 'where it is predictable by general rule'."
(29) Stamp seals go back to 7th mil. BC. More elaborate seals and cylinder seals appeared in 4th mil BC.
(33-34) Earliest cunieform found in Eana temple precinct in Uruk, dating ~3200 BC = Late Uruk period. Uruk increased in size from 20,000 to 50,000 individuals remaining the largest city in the world during this time. Writing was invented in the context of records and administration. "Literature plays no role in the origins of writing in Mesopotamia."
"The Earliest Mesopotamian Writing" (35-) 2 phases of proto-cuneiform during Uruk IV (~3200 BC) and Uruk III (~3100 BC). Over 6000 tablets. (pg. 41, Figure 2.9) 6 types of numerical system, based on sexagesimal system.
(42) "Remarkably [the Standard Professions] list was copied with little change throughout the third millennium, a span of nearly a thousand years - an astonishing fact indeed.... It is important to point out the faithful adherence to tradition with regard to the repeated copying of what was already an ancient text by the third millennium meant that scribes were reproducing sign forms and vocabulary, like the aforementioned namesda, that had become obsolete long before... Likely, [the lexical lists] prestige stems in part from their cultural value as symbols of the scribal profession, the tradition of their scrupulous transmission from one generation to the next being intimately bound up with scribal identity."
Cuneiform script and the Sumerian and Akkadian languages (2017) by Eleanor Robson - oracc.museum.upenn.edu - Brief introduction to how cuneiform was used throughout history.
Cuneify - Cuneify takes a transliteration and turns it into cuneiform characters.
Example from lines 170-171 of The instructions of Šuruppag ETCSL 5.6.1:
nam-tar pesz10 dur5-ra-am3 lu2-da giri3-ni im-ma-da-an-ze2-er
𒉆 𒋻 𒆠𒀀 𒀀 𒊏 𒀀𒀭 𒇽 𒁕 𒄊 𒉌 𒅎 𒈠 𒁕 𒀭 𒍢 𒅕
Fate is a wet bank; it can make one slip.
For š, ṣ and ṭ, you can type sz, s, (s comma) and t,, e.g., t,u-up-szar-rum. You can also type or paste in Unicode characters (such as š, ṣ, and ṭ) and/or any valid ATF-format transliteration.
For diacritics (subscript numerals) you can type normal numerals, e.g., i3-li2, but you can also use ì-lí.
You can type the divine, female, and male determinatives as d-, f- and m-, or as {d}, {f} and {m} (and the other determinatives too).
If you type numbers in the decimal system they are converted automatically to base 60.
Cuneify - How to reuse material from Oracc - Cuneify was developed for ORACC by Steve Tinney
Signpad: Because Cuneify Is Not Very Good - reddit.com - A Windows installable program with more features than Cuneify.
Cuneiform Sign List Links - home.zcu.cz - Useful links page to a Cuneiform Sign List that correlates Ur III Sumerian to Neo-Assyrian cuneiform signs.
eAkkadian Appendix Signs - digitalpasts.github.io
ANCIENTSCRIPTS.COM - Highlights: Proto-Sinaitic/Canaanite; Phoenician; Hebrew
Canaanite in Cuneiform (2004) by Eva von Dassow - In many Amarna letters corresponding with Canaan and writings from Canaan during the Late Bronze Age, an Akkadian Cuneiform script was adapted for communicating in the Canaanite language. That is, it was written in a hybrid Akkadian-Canaanite, but read and spoken as Canaanite in both Canaan and Egypt. For instance pg. 665 - Akk/Can A-NA-KU corresponds to Can. 'anoki meaning 'I am'
BibleGateway - biblegateway.com - Easy to read, use, and search Bibles of most available translations.
Bible Hub - biblehub.com - A library of translations, commentaries, dictionaries, and concordances all synced together.
Evangelical Textual Criticism - evangelicaltextualcriticism.blogspot.com -
New International Version (NIV) - Biblica.com - A common modern translation on publishers site.
NIV Study Bible - Biblica.com - Evangelical notes keyed to NIV translation.
The Septuagint versus the Masoretic - ecmarsh.com - The English version of the Septuagint text by Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton compared to the English version of the Masoretic text in the King James translation.
An introduction to the grammar of Sumerian - CORE
Foxvog, Daniel A. (2016) Introduction to Sumerian Grammar. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative https://cdli.ucla.edu/?q=cuneiform-digital-library-preprints
The Language Gulper: Sumerian Language - languagesgulper.com
Sumerian Language Page - sumerian.org
Sumerian Lexicon, Version 3.0 by John A. Halloran - sumerian.org
The Proto-Sumerian Language Invention Process by John A. Halloran
MEMRISE - memrise.com - Language learning software that contains several Sumerian courses of various quality.
Kingship in the Early Mesopotamian Onomasticon 2800–2200 BCE - uu.diva-portal.org
Sexagesimal Calculations in Ancient Sumer (2022) by Kazuo Muroi - arxiv.org - An elegant consideration of Sumerian sexagesimal calculation.
The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL) - etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk - Unabridged and composite texts of Sumerian literature. Highlights: Enlil and Sud, Nanna-Suen's journey to Nibru, The lament for Sumer and Urim,
In the day literature starts with or has within its first few lines an "in the day" reference to an ancient time, often to creation before humans. The ancient review is often only tangentially related to the rest of the story - just like the "In the day" of Genesis 2:4b-7 is only tangentially related to the second vision of creation.
From the Nibru catalogue, 0.2.01 (N2):
entries 7, 20, 21 - ud re-a match incipits to four known texts:
entry 27 - ud ul re-ta = "In those ancient days..." - The debate between Bird and Fish, 5.3.5
entry 38 - ud ul an ki-ta incipit to Lugalbanda in the mountain cave, 1.8.2.1
The Barton Cylinder - cdli.ucla.edu - epsd2 - ud ri₂-a ud ri₂-še₃
"Those days were faraway days, indeed! Those nights were faraway nights, indeed! Those years were faraway years, indeed!"
Several themes relate to both visions of creation. Column 4 is a difficult to translate section featuring "edin."
The building of Ninĝirsu's temple 2.1.7 - "On the day when in heaven and earth the fates had been decided" Given that fates were decided at dawn and the text is accouting "a nocturnal vision" of Gudea, the ruler of Lagash then maybe it should read, "At daylight (ie. dawn) the fates of heaven and earth were inscribed."
Crisostomo, Jay (2017) The Sumerian Discourse Markers u₄-ba and u₄-bi-a. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 69: 49– 66. doi: 10.5615/jcunestud.69.2017.0049 - journals.uchicago.edu PDF
an-usan = contraction meaning "dusk" 59 or "evening"
From the Nibru catalogue, 0.2.01 (N2):
Enki and the world order - ETCSL 1.1.3 -
Enki analogized or symbolized as a tree:
4 king, meš tree planted in the Abzu, rising over all lands;
5-6 great dragon who stands in Eridug, whose shadow covers heaven and earth,
7 a grove of vines extending over the Land...
- [Three phrases that visually and vocally parallels the tree concept ĝiš/ĝeš with a meš tree (ĝišmeš3 ), a great serpent (ušumgal) providing protection (ĝissu-bi) and grape vines (ĝišĝeštin-na) with the dominion of Enki]
Your branches …… green with their fruit ……, …… do honour to the gods.
The lord, the great ruler of the Abzu, issues instructions on board the 'Stag of the Abzu' -- the great emblem erected in the Abzu, providing protection, its shade extending over the whole land and refreshing the people, the pillar and pole planted in the …… marsh, rising high over all the foreign lands.
Maker of history - the one who decrees the fate of gods and men:
17 Counting the days and putting the months in their houses, so as to complete the years and to submit the completed years to the assembly for a decision, taking decisions to regularise the days: Father Enki, you are the king of the assembled people. You have only to open your mouth for everything to multiply and for plenty to be established.
41-46 Enki, lord of prosperity, lord of wisdom, lord, the beloved of An, the ornament of Eridug, who establish commands and decisions, who well understands the decreeing of fates: you close up the days ……, and make the months enter their houses.
Granted incredible power by An and Enlil:
62- "My father, the king of heaven and earth (ie. An), made me famous in heaven and earth. My elder brother, the king of all the lands (ie. Enlil), gathered up all the divine powers and placed them in my hand. I brought the arts and crafts from the E-kur, the house of Enlil, to my Abzu in Eridug. I am the good semen, begotten by a wild bull, I am the first born of An. I am a great storm (ud gal) rising over the great earth, I am the great lord of the Land. I am the principal among all rulers, the father of all the foreign lands. I am the big brother of the gods, I bring prosperity to perfection. I am the seal-keeper of heaven and earth. I am the wisdom and understanding of all the foreign lands. With An the king, on An's dais, I oversee justice. With Enlil, looking out over the lands, I decree good destinies. He has placed in my hands the decreeing of fates in the place where the sun rises. I am cherished by Nintur. I am named with a good name by Ninḫursaĝa. I am the leader of the Anuna gods. I was born as the firstborn son of holy An."
- [Notice the apparent contradiction: Enlil is the elder brother (pap-ĝu10), but Enki is the first born of An. The implication is that Enlil preexists but is in contact with creation whereas Enki is the first born of creation, that is the necessary precondition for creation.]
88 "I am the lord, I am one whose word is reliable, I am one who excels in everything." [me-en = "I am" used 3 times in the phrase]
A hymn to Ḫaia for Rīm-Sîn (Rīm-Sîn B) - ETCSL 2.6.9.2 - Ḫaia 𒀭𒄩𒉌 is the western version of Enki/Ea presumably brought in by the Amorites. This Old Babylonian hymn considers Ḫaia as a different god from Enki to reconcile the western focus on the minutiae of creation with the more personal and storied view of Enki the creator in southern Mesopotamia. Therefore, Ḫaia is closer to the later depersonalized Greek Logos than the Sumerian Enki.
1-8. Lord, perfect in august wisdom and recognised for his mighty counsel, Ḫaia, who holds the great tablets, who enriches the deep wisdom! Accountant of Ḫal-an-kug, having the final overview of the arts of Nisaba's house of wisdom; palace archivist of heaven and earth, who keeps count of every single assignment, who holds a holy reed-stylus and covers the great tablets of destiny with writing! Wise one, who prompts holy An with words and attention at the appropriate times; seal-holder of Father Enlil! He who brings forth the holy objects from the treasure-house of E-kur; ornament of the abzu shrine, wearing his hair loose for Lord Nudimmud (ie. no formalities with the "Lord of creation", Enki)!
Ḫaia, you are the god of the Land who gives ear to the prayers of all the people.
43-48. When Father Enki comes forth from the abzu, he assigns (?) its greatness to you, Ḫaia. You cause the people who are in its midst to lift their necks towards heaven; you make its population pass their days in rejoicing.
Alternative translation in Kramer, Samuel Noah. 1977. "The Ur excavations and Sumerian literature." PDF In Expedition Fall. 41-47.
Enki and Ninḫursaĝa ETCSL 1.1.1 -
Enki and Ninhursag : a Sumerian "Paradise" Myth (1945) by Kramer, Samuel Noah - archive.org
Ancient Near Eastern Gods Enki and Ea: Diachronical Analysis of Texts and Images from the Earliest Sources to the Neo-Sumerian Period (2006) - researchgate.net - Masters Thesis by Peeter Espak.
The God Enki in Sumerian Royal Ideology and Mythology ( )by Peeter Espak - dspace.ut.ee - Answers to 3 key questions:
Is the Sumerian god Enki originally a water-god?
Is there any detectable power struggle between the theologies of Enki and Enlil? Not really. In the vast majority of cases they are complementary and unified.
Do the different mythological motives reflect different "schools" of mythology?
(18) Abzu temples listed during ED suggest the "cult of Enki must have been spread over the whole region of Mesopotamia."
Myths of Enki, the Crafty God (1989) Kramer, Samuel Noah & Maier, John R - archive.org
The Lament for Sumer and Urim - ETCSL 2.2.3 - Theological description of the fall of the 3rd and last dynasty of Ur - the end of Sumer. When everything goes to hell, only four gods really mattered - An, Enlil, Enki, and Ninḫursaĝa (ie. Ninmah). According to the story, the rest skipped town. While the creating triad and Ninmah - representing the land not covered by brackish waters - decide in union to destroy Sumer, the figurehead of destruction is Enlil as it is in other texts. The destruction is analogized to storms and floods, but in reality, it is drought, famine, salting of the plain (ie. eden), and conquering neighbors that caused the destruction.
1-2. To overturn the appointed times, to obliterate the divine plans, the storms gather to strike like a flood.
3-11. An, Enlil, Enki and {Ninḫursaĝa} {(2 mss. have instead:) Ninmaḫ} have decided its fate -- to overturn the divine powers of Sumer, to lock up the favourable reign in its home, to destroy the city, to destroy the house
Enlil the destroyer:
22-26. after An had frowned upon all the lands, after Enlil had looked favourably on an enemy land, after Nintur had scattered the creatures that she had created, after Enki had altered the course of the Tigris and Euphrates, after Utu had cast his curse on the roads and highways;
27-37. so as to obliterate the divine powers of Sumer, to change its preordained plans, to alienate the divine powers of the reign of kingship of Urim, to humiliate the princely son in his house E-kiš-nu-ĝal, to break up the unity of the people of Nanna, numerous as ewes; to change the food offerings of Urim, the shrine of magnificent food offerings; that its people should no longer dwell in their quarters, that they should be given over to live in an inimical place; that Šimaški and Elam, the enemy, should dwell in their place; that its shepherd, in his own palace, should be captured by the enemy, that Ibbi-Suen should be taken to the land Elam in fetters, that from Mount Zabu on the edge of the sea to the borders of Anšan, like a swallow that has flown from its house, he should never return to his city;
69-78. The people, in their fear, breathed only with difficulty. The storm immobilised them, the storm did not let them return. There was no return for them, the storm did not retreat. This is what Enlil, the shepherd of the black-headed people, did: Enlil, to destroy the loyal households, to decimate the loyal men, to put the evil eye on the sons of the loyal men, on the first-born, Enlil then sent down Gutium from the mountains. Their advance was as the flood of Enlil that cannot be withstood. The great wind of the countryside filled the countryside, it advanced before them. The extensive countryside was destroyed, no one moved about there.
163-173. On that day the word of Enlil was an attacking storm. Who could fathom it? The word of Enlil was destruction on the right, was …… on the left. This is what Enlil, the one who determines destinies, did: Enlil brought down the Elamites, the enemy, from the highlands.
260. This is what Enlil, who decides the fates, did: Again he sent down the Elamites, the enemy, from the mountains
292-302. Enlil threw open the door of the grand gate to the wind. In Urim no one went to fetch food, no one went to fetch water. Its people rushed around like water being poured from a well. Their strength ebbed away, they could not even go on their way. Enlil afflicted the city with an evil famine. He afflicted the city with that which destroys cities, that which destroys houses. He afflicted the city with that which cannot be withstood with weapons. He afflicted the city with dissatisfaction and treachery. In Urim, which was like a solitary reed, there was not even fear. Its people, like fish being grabbed in a pond, sought to escape. Its young and old lay spread about, no one could rise.
The moon god Nanna Suen asks his father why the destruction:
340-349. Suen wept to his father Enlil: "O father who begot me, why have you turned away from my city which was built (?) for you? O Enlil, why have you turned away from my Urim which was built (?) for you? The boat with first-fruit offerings no longer brings first-fruit offerings to the father who begot him. Your food offerings can no longer be brought to Enlil in Nibru. The en priests of the countryside and city have been carried off by phantoms. Urim, like a city raked by a hoe, is to be counted as a ruin-mound. The Du-ur, Enlil's resting-place, has become a haunted shrine. O Enlil, gaze upon your city, an empty wasteland. Gaze upon your city Nibru, an empty wasteland."
350-356. "The dogs of Urim no longer sniff at the base of the city wall. The man who used to drill large wells scratches the ground in the market place. My father who begot me, enclose in your embrace my city which is all alone. Enlil, return to your embrace my Urim which is all alone. Enclose in your embrace my E-kiš-nu-ĝal which is all alone. May you bring forth offspring in Urim, may you multiply its people. May you restore the divine powers of Sumer that have been forgotten."
360-370. Enlil then answered his son Suen: "There is lamentation in the haunted city, reeds of mourning grow there. In its midst the people pass their days in sighing. Oh Nanna, the noble son ……, why do you concern yourself with crying? The judgment uttered by the assembly cannot be reversed. The word of An and Enlil knows no overturning. Urim was indeed given kingship but it was not given an eternal reign. From time immemorial, since the Land was founded, until people multiplied, who has ever seen a reign of kingship that would take precedence for ever? The reign of its kingship had been long indeed but had to exhaust itself. O my Nanna, do not exert yourself in vain, abandon your city."
449-459. In his grief Suen approached his father. He went down on his knee in front of Enlil, the father who begot him: "O father who begot me, how long will the enemy eye be cast upon my account, how long ……? The lordship and the kingship that you bestowed ……, Father Enlil, the one who advises with just words, the wise words of the Land ……, your inimical judgment ……, look into your darkened heart, terrifying like waves. O Father Enlil, the fate that you have decreed cannot be explained, as for my hairstyle (?) of lordship and the diadem with which I was crowned." …… he put on a garment of mourning.
460-474. Enlil then provided a favourable response to his son Suen: "My son, the city built for you in joy and prosperity was given to you as your reign. Destroying the city, overthrowing its great wall and battlements: all this too is part of that reign. …… the black, black days of the reign that has been your lot. As for dwelling in your home, the E-temen-ni-guru, that was properly built -- indeed Urim shall be rebuilt in splendour, the people shall bow down to you. There is to be bounty at its base, there is to be grain. There is to be splendour at its top, the sun shall rejoice there. Let an abundance of grain embrace its table. May Urim, the city whose fate was pronounced by An, be restored for you." Having pronounced his blessing, Enlil raised his head toward the heavens: "May the land, south and highland, be organised for Nanna. May the roads of the mountains be set in order for Suen. Like a cloud hugging the earth, they shall submit to him. By order of An and Enlil it shall be conferred."
475-477A. Father Nanna came into his city of Urim with head raised high. The youth Suen could enter again into the E-kiš-nu-ĝal. Ningal refreshed herself in her sacred living quarters.
Michalowski, P. (1989). The Lamentation Over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur. United States: Eisenbrauns.
Enlil and Nam-zid-tara - ETCSL 5.7.1 - Enlil is represented by a raven. Names of gods and men are significant in Sumerian thinking. Enlil blesses Nam-zid-tara (Well-blessed) - "Your fate shall be assigned according to your name"
A praise poem of Lipit-Eštar (Lipit-Eštar B), ETCSL 2.5.5.2 - lines 51-56
Among joyful songs of the heart, in an auspicious regnal year, the prince, the powerful prince surpassing in greatness and majesty, your father Išme-Dagan, king of the Land, made the foundations of his throne firm for you. On the orders of An and Enlil, {he} {(1 ms. has instead:) you} silenced the loud (?) strife of the foreign countries.
AS 11. The Sumerian King List by Thorkild Jacobsen - oi.uchicago.edu - Chicago: University of Chricago Press, 1939. Pp. xvi + 216; 1 plate, 2 tables
Editorial Note on the Apkallu and the Roadmap Ahead by Estéban Trujillo de Gutiérrez - therealsamizdat.com - Sources on the Apkallu or "wise ones". Probable equivalents of the biblical Nephilem.
http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/20340.pdf
The Flood Story, Segment E - ETCSL 1.7.4 - An and Enlil "granted [Zi-ud-sura] life like a god, they brought down to him eternal life."
Lugalbanda in the mountain cave, 1.8.2.1
123-127. "If our brother rises like Utu from bed, then the god who has smitten him will step aside and, when he eats this food, when he drinks (?) this, will make his feet stable. May he bring him over the high places of the mountains to brick-built Kulaba."
128-132. "But if Utu calls our brother to the holy place, the valued place [ki kug ki kal-kal-la-aš], the health of his limbs will leave (?) him. Then it will be up to us, when we come back from Aratta, to bring our brother's body to brick-built Kulaba."
Transtigridian Snake Gods (1997) by F A M Wiggerman - academia.edu
80-82. "You have placed me at the right hand of the king in order to destroy rebel lands: may he, with my aid, smash heads like a falcon in the foothills of the mountain, King An, and may I …… your name throughout the land like a thread."
83-88. "May he destroy the lands as a snake in a crevice. May he make them slither around like a saĝkal snake coming down from a mountain. May he establish control over the mountain, examine it and know its length. May he go out on the holy campaign of An and know its depth. I want to surpass the other deities, since the Anuna deities have ……."
89-95. "How can it be that the mountain did not fear me in heaven and on earth, that the mountain did not fear me, Inana, in heaven and on earth, that the mountain range of Ebiḫ, the mountain, did not fear me in heaven and on earth? Because it did not act appropriately on its own initiative, because it did not put its nose to the ground, because it did not rub its lips in the dust, may I fill my hand with the soaring mountain range and make it learn fear of me."
Lugalbanda in the mountain cave, 1.8.2.1 - Sickness causes Lugalbanda to be like snake.
71-86. Lugalbanda, the eighth of them, …… was washed in water. In awed silence he went forward, …… he marched with the troops. When they had covered half the way, covered half the way, a sickness befell him there, 'head sickness' befell him. He jerked like a snake dragged by its head with a reed; his mouth bit the dust, like a gazelle caught in a snare. No longer could his hands return the hand grip, no longer could he lift his feet high. Neither king nor contingents could help him. In the great mountains, crowded together like a dustcloud over the ground, they said: "Let them bring him to Unug." But they did not know how they could bring him. "Let them bring him to Kulaba." But they did not know how they could bring him. As his teeth chattered (?) in the cold places of the mountains, they brought him to a warm place there.
Sumerian Mythology (1961) by Samuel Noah Kramer - sacred-texts.com - pgs. 30-32
Polonsky, Janice, "The rise of the Sun God and the determination of destiny in ancient Mesopotamia" (2002). Dissertations available from ProQuest. AAI3073042. https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI3073042
Robson, Eleanor (2016) 'Celestial & terrestrial divination', Knowledge and Power, Higher Education Academy
Veldhuis, N., 'The theory of knowledge and the practice of celestial divination', in A. Annus (ed.), Divination and interpretation of signs in the ancient world (Oriental Institute Publications, 6), Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010, pp. 77–90. PDF - oi.uchicago.edu
Woods, C. (2009). At the Edge of the World: Cosmological Conceptions of the Eastern Horizon in Mesopotamia. Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions, 9(2), 183–239. https://doi.org/10.1163/156921109X12520501747912 - academia.edu
Adam “habitation” or settlement from Lagash II on, used most during OB. 𒀉𒁮 a₂-dam 𒀉𒁮𒀉𒁮 a₂-dam-a₂-dam 𒈕 dim₃ Akk. namû http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0023525
a2 “arm” ED IIIb on. Also plow handle, side. Akk on: wing, horn, strength, power, wage, rent, strap, part of a scale 𒀉 a₂ 𒄑𒀉 ŋeš a₂ from ED IIIa on http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0023086 Akk. ahu(m); idu(m)
A₂ Values: A₂; a₂; a₂-; ed; et-; id; id-; it; it-; iṭ; te₈; te₈-; ti₈; ti₈-.
Homonym with 𒀀 with the basic meaning of water. Signed used as above from Ur III
Sign is a modification of dag[side] or da [line] 𒁕 da which is pre-cuneiform
Examples:
a₂-taḫ “HELPER” OAkk on
a₂-mi₂ 𒀉𒊩 a₂-mi 𒀉𒈪 ama₅ 𒃣 emi[household]N
𒃣 GA₂×SAL Values:ama₅; ama₅-; arhuš; arhuš-; ur₁₄; uš₃.
GA₂ 𒂷 Values:GA₂; ba₄; ba₄-; bisaŋ; bisaŋ-; ga₂; ga₂-; ŋa₂; ŋa₂-; ŋe₂₆; ma₃; ma₃-; mal.
SAL 𒊩 Values: SAL; gal₄; gal₄-; mi₂; mi₂-; min₂; mug₂; munus; munus-; murub; nunusₓ(SAL); rag; rak; sal; sal-; šal; šal-.
Arḫuš “womb”, “compassion”
ur₁₄ root, trunk, limbs, loin, lap
Dam “Spouse” husband or wife 𒁮 dam ED IIIa on Akk. aššatu; mutu http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0025646
Tam “trust” or believe OB
The logogram 𒁮 is a combination of sikil 𒂖 and til/bad 𒁁
sikil 𒂖 "pure, virginal" is a compound of "woman" 𒊩 and si/sig9 𒋛 "horn, bow, prow; to put into,onto; to fill or load;"
Examples:
𒌈𒁮𒍝 dum-dam za 𒌈𒅇𒁮𒍝 dum-u₃-dam za “to make noise”
dum-dam [SOUND]
E₂-dam 𒂍𒁮 Temple only ED IIIb, in lists of building projects
nam-dam 𒉆𒁮 namdam[marriage]N (40× / 100%) from ED IIIb on
Adamšah 𒀀𒁮𒂄𒆠 a-dam-šaḫ₂ki Settlement in Elam? Potts 2010 - Adamšah, Kimaš and the miners of Lagaš - academia.edu
dam-šaḫ damšah[hippopotamus]N (11× / 58%)
Tam₂-ḫa-ri 𒁮𒄩𒊑 Month from Ur III
tamšilum [IMAGE, likeness, figurine] 𒁮𒅆𒈝 tam₂-ši-lum, 𒌓𒅆𒈝 tam-ši-lum, 𒁮𒊺𒇻𒌝 dam-še-lu-um, 𒁮𒂠𒈝 tam₂-še₃-lum
EL Values:EL; el; il₅; sikil.
uš₂ "blood, gore"
𒋢𒂔𒆠 su-bir₄ki EDIIIb on = šubartum /Subartu = upper Mesopotamia epsd2/sux/Subir[1] (upenn.edu)
OB Nippur Ura 05 dcclt (upenn.edu)
306 a-ku-uzki Akusum
307 a-ku-uz eden-naki Akusum-of-the-Steppe
308 a-ku-uz su-bir₄ki Akusum-of-Subartu
311 ma-da su-bir₄ki the land of Subartu
K 02035a + K 04337 dcclt (upenn.edu)
o ii 6' su-bir₄ki su-bar-⸢tum⸣ Subartu
o ii 7' su-piriŋki su-bar-⸢tum⸣ "flesh of a piriŋ creature" = Subartu
o ii 8' sa-piriŋki su-bar-tum "sinew of a piriŋ creature" = Subartu
o ii 9' ḫu-bu-urki su-bar-tum Hubur = Subartu
𒆠𒂗𒄀 ki-en-gi = "place of the noble lords"; Sumerian for Sumer - this is just Enki backwards with reeds
Aya [god] 𒀭𒀀𒀀 da-a Divine dawn - Found underneath or with Utu the sun god in god lists and seals.
Generally thought the spouse of Utu (Woods 2009), but found on the multilingual Ugaritic copy of the Weidner God List as matching e-ia-an (ie. Ea/Enki) and ku-šar-ru (ie. Kothar). Kothar is thought to be a Canaanite version of the Egyptian god Ptah.
In the Weidner list, Aya is found underneath the divine day dud and sun god dutu
The fates are decided at dawn. Building of Ningiru's temple: 706. "Facing the sunrise, where the fates are decided, he erected the standard of Utu, the Bison head, beside others already there. "
Father 𒀀𒀀 aya 𒀀 aya₂ 𒀀𒅀 a-ia Used when addressing a god as father, particularly An or Enlil
Marshland 𒆹 aya₄
Haia [god] 𒀭𒄩𒉌 dḫa-ia₃ 𒀭𒄩𒀀 dḫa-ia₁₀ Ur III on. Considered a separate god of Enki from at least OB on.
Uri [AKKAD] (GN) 𒌵𒆠 epsd2/sux/Uri[Akkad] URIII OB Post-OB
The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary - psd.museum.upenn.edu
amar [YOUNG] (2771x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian, 1st millennium) wr. amar "calf; young, youngster, chick; son, descendant" Akk. būru; māru
peš [THICK] (147x: Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian, 1st millennium) wr. peš; peš5; peš4; peš6 "innards; to breathe; grandson; descendant; to give birth (to); (to be) pregnant; pregnancy; to gather; (to be) thick; (to be) wide" Akk. alādu; kabattu; līp līpi; mār māri; mērû; napāšu; šabāšu
pešturzi [DESCENDANTS] (2x: Old Babylonian) wr. peš-tur-zi "descendants" Akk. liblibbu
šabalbal [DESCENDENT] (8x: Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. šag4-bal-bal; šabalbal "descendent" Akk. liblibbi
bilga [FRUIT] (4x: Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. bil2-ga "fresh fruit; male ancestor" Akk. inbu
pabilga [RELATION] (14x: Old Babylonian) wr. pa-bil2-ga; pa-bil3-ga; pa4-bil2-ga; pa-bil-ga; pa4-bil-ga; pa4-bi-ga "a kinship term" Akk. abu
išme [STONE] wr. urudiš-me "a stone" Akk. ešmekku
me [BEING] wr. me "Being, divine properties enabling cosmic activity; office; (cultic) ordinance" Akk. mû; parşu
me [BATTLE] wr. me3; me; me7; me9; mex(AK׊ITA); me11 "battle; combat" Akk. tāhāzu
me [BE] wr. me; em; am3 "to be"
me [DESIRE] wr. me "desire" Akk. lalû
me [REFINE] wr. me "to wash, refine" Akk. mesû
me [SILENCE] wr. me "silence" Akk. qūlu
me [STIFFNESS] wr. me "stiffness" Akk. luʾtu
Is it coincidence that the Sumerian sign for me 𒈨 is also the sign for defining types of garments called ba? Akk. nalbašu
meʾe[I]IP Sux. ŋaʾe[I]IP; anāku
CDLI P229947 HS 1777 Old Babylonian Nippur Lexical List
o ii 4 [[men₂ > ]] * min₃ ME you are/I am (suffixed copula) in the third column language
niŋ₂-zi-ŋal₂ eden-na - oracc.museum.upenn.edu - "animals of the steppe (or plain)" in the composite word list OB Nippur Ura 03 Found in 12 other word lists with variations.
Living creature 𒃻𒍣𒅅 niŋ₂-zi-ŋal₂ Lag II Akk. nammaštu; nammaštûm; nammaššûm; šiknat napišti
"thing, possession" 𒃻 niŋ₂ ED IIIa Akk. bušu; mimma
"life" or "breath" 𒍣 zi ED IIIa Akk. napištu
to be (there, at hand, available); to put, to place, to lay down 𒅅 ŋal₂ PC Akk. bašû; šakānu
moving things, animals
Fauna (wild)
ŋeštug, geštu - Ear; wisdom, understanding 𒄑𒌆𒉿 ŋeštug₂ 𒉿 ŋeštug ED IIIa and on Akk. hassu; uznu; uznu; ṭēmu
Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East. - ncbi.nlm.nih.gov - Kitchen, A., Ehret, C., Assefa, S., & Mulligan, C. J. (2009). Proceedings. Biological sciences, 276(1668), 2703–2710.
Origin of Semitic language in the Levant before ~3750 BC.
Hebrew and Aramaic split ~1500 BC (1850 - 850 BC).
Arrival in the Horn of Africa ~800 BC (1700 BC - 100 CE.
Militarev, Alexander. (2012). Addenda and conclusion of an etymology-based 100-item wordlist for Semitic languages. 10.31826/9781463235017-008.
Hellenosemitica: An Ethnic and Cultural Study in West Semitic Impact on Mycenaean Greece By Michael C. Astour · 1967 - PHD thesis
James D. Muhly Review - "This is not an age of the polymath; it is an age that distrusts the polymath." Very negative review.
John Boardman Review - Unenthusiastic review.
Michael C. Astour: A Biographical Essay - spark.siue.edu by James J. Weingartner (2015). SIUE Faculty Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activity. PDF - Interesting, often harrowing life of an influential Near East historian of the 20th century.
"Chapter 8: Akkadian and Eblaite" (2004) John Huehnergard and Christopher Woods - academia.edu - The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages
"Akkadian probably died as a spoken language in the middle of the first millennium BC when it was gradually replaced by Aramaic."
Old Babylonian is considered the "classical phase of Akkadian": well preserved, all major genres attested, imitated in Standard Babylonian in the first millennium.
Peripheral Akkadian written by non-native speakers.
A Structural Grammar of Babylonian (1996) by Giorgio Buccellati - google.com
Chapter 22 - The Inflection of the Normal State (pgs. 145-155) -
Pg. 358 "Within predication, it appears that mimation is indeed a marker of determination.... Outside of predication, one may speculate that mimation might possibly have served a similar function in earlier times, but already in Old Akkadian the presence of inflected forms of the normal state without mimation is rare, and we can only "explain" it as a case of free variation (i.e., we do not in fact explain it). In practice, then, mimation appears to be only a redundant element of the normal state, which comes to be dropped regularly, without any compensatory shift, already by the middle of the second millennium."
Hub page for dcclt/signlists - oracc.museum.upenn.edu - Links to lexicon and cuneiform signing.
Akkadian Dictionary - assyrianlanguages.org
Possible Akkadian equivalents of Hebrew Toledot:
elēpu (also : alāpu) [Country → Plants] 1) to sprout , to grow (plant) , to increase (cattle ...), to multiply (descendance, cattle ...) 2) [astronomie] : said of a halo ("agû") 3) in personal names : "grants growth to" ; causes to grow , increases , multiplies 4) Gt : grow into one another , to interlock (fighters, weapons ...) , to intermingled , to intertwine , to entangle , to enmesh 5) Š : to cause to grow , to cause to intermingle (vegetation , fighters) , to increase (descendants , regnal years ...) 6) Št : to flourish , to grow densely
ilittu : [Human → Family] 1) birth , nativity ; 2) an offspring , a scion , a descendant , a brat , an urchin ; 3) a brood , a descent , a stock / an origin
The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD) - oi.uchicago.edu - 21 volumes published from 1956 to 2010. PDF downloads: A v1p1; A v1p2; B v2; D v3; E v4; G v5; H[Het] v6; I/J v7; K v8; L v9; M v10p1; M v10p2; N v11p1; N v11p2; P v12; Q v13; R v14; S v15; S[Tsade] v16; S[Shin] v17p1; S[Shin] v17p2; S[Shin] v17p3; T v18; T[Tet] v19; U/W v20; and Z v21.
Ur III period is a transition from Old Akkadian to Old Babylonian with elements of both.
Schlomo Izre’el, Adapa and the South Wind: Language Has the Power of Life and Death, Eisenbrauns, 2001, pp. 7-8. https://books.google.co.th/books?id=MbwwROVGl7UC
Ishtar and Izdubar (1884) by Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton - sacred-texts.com - Early translation of the Izdubar/Gligamesh epic with embellishments and reconstructions before further texts were found.
The Chaldean Account of Genesis (1876) by George Smith - sacred-texts.com also amazon.com - Account of the Izdubar/Gilgamesh epic from the main person responsible for finding it.
The Sargon Geography from Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography By Wayne Horowitz, pgs. 67-95 - books.google.com - Huge relation of place names including Edom and Moab. Believed to have been compiled from older sources in the first millennium BC.
Sources of Early Akkadian Literature (SEAL) - seal.huji.ac.il - A Text Corpus of Babylonian and Assyrian Literary Texts from the 3rd and 2nd Millennia BCE
142 W[ho is the one that stirred up the w]ar,
143 so that bat[tle has run right up to the gate of E]nlil?”
144 In the a[ssembly the gods answered,]
145 they reb[elled against the message of Enl]]il:
146 “It was all [of us who declared war.]
147 We convene[d our assembly]
148 in the e[xcavation].
149 A baske[t too heavy has killed us.]
150 Th[e toil] is great, [the trouble much.]
151 Therefore, it was all [of (us) gods who]
152 were driven to ... against Enlil.
Hebrew for Christians - hebrew4christians.coms - A highly recommended site for learning some basic Hebrew and the cultural history in which if flowed.
Hebrew Streams Directory - hebrew-streams.org
Hebrew Text - bible-researcher.com
Biblical Idioms that Have Changed their Meaning in Modern Hebrew - academia.edu
The Oldest Hebrew Script and Language - biblicalarchaeology.org
Sefaria - sefaria.org - Hebrew commentaries, connections and translations.
Automatic Hebrew Transliteration - alittlehebrew.com
Transliterating Hebrew: How We Do It at HaYidion - prizmah.org -
How Sheshonq Became Shishak - baslibrary.org
In Hebrew, the sounds “n” and “m” are what linguists call “weak,” and are sometimes dropped. This is especially true in proper names. For example, we know that the city of Gath was spelled Ginti or Gimti in Egyptian inscriptions. And Hebrew Makkedah was spelled Manqedah in Aramaic.
The Phoenician Alphabet - phoenicia.org
Table of the Phoenician Alphabet
Oldest Hebrew and Samaritan Script and Language were nothing but Phoenician - phoenicia.org - Phoenician=Paleo-Hebrew with an axe to grind. Agree except the article does not discuss the main distinction of the "to be" verbs.
https://lebanonuntravelled.com/king-ahiram-sarcophagus-and-the-alphabet/ Oldest Phoenician script around ~1000 BC
Hebrew Word Lessons - hebrewwordlessons.com - "Understanding the Hebrew Bible one Word at a time." Well written and very often enlightening theological word studies. Highlights:
Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective - balashon.com - Highlights: ish and isha;
Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon - New American Standard - biblestudytools.com - Brown, Driver, Briggs, Gesenius Lexicon; which is keyed to the "Theological Word Book of the Old Testament."
Chapter 10a – Construct Chain - hebrew.billmounce.com - How genitive constructions work in Hebrew.
http://hebrew.billmounce.com/BasicsBiblicalHebrew-12.pdf
Chapter 20a – Qal Infinitive Construct
Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar/124. The Various Uses of the Plural-form
"Hebrew/Israelite Literature" (2009) by Carl Ehrlich - acedemia.edu - Chapter 7 in From an Antique Land: An Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Literature
The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library - deadseascrolls.org.il
The Syriac Institute - bethmardutho.org - Promotes the Syriac language, which is a version of ancient Aramaic.
Hellenosemitica An Ethnic and Cultural Study in West Semitic Impact on Mycenaean Greece
By Michael C. Astour · 1967 The Danaans-Danunians pg.18
"It is significant that the Aramaic language has not inherited a single word from the Syrian Hittites (while it borrowed a great number of Akkadian and, through Akkadian, even of Sumerian words). This excludes the possibility of any wide diffusion of the H-H [Hittite Heirographic] language among the Syrian populations. The Semitism of the region of Hamath in Central Syria, the very heart of the ancient land of Amurru, cannot be doubted; nevertheless its ruler Urhilina, a contemporary of Shalmaneser III, left inscriptions in the same H-H language as Asitawandas of the Plain of Adana, without even a parallel Canaanite or Aramaic text."
How Many Egyptian Words Made It into Biblical Hebrew? (2023) by Philologos - mosaicmagazine.com - How little speculation is warranted by Egyptian loan words.
Other Northwest Semitic texts generally lack Egyptian terminology, demonstrating that the high proportions of Egyptian loanwords in the exodus and wilderness narratives are atypical of Northwest Semitic and almost certainly due to a particular historical circumstance that gave rise to the borrowing of so many Egyptian words. The sole exception is Imperial Aramaic, which not surprisingly contains a high proportion of Egyptian loanwords due to the fact that many of its texts were from Egypt. (62-63)
...at least some of the Egyptian loanwords in the exodus and wilderness narratives entered Hebrew during the Late Bronze Age, precisely when we would expect them to have been borrowed if the events of these narratives really occurred. (67-68)
A Grammar of Modern Indo-European, Second Edition - books.google.com - By Carlos Quiles, Fernando Lopez-Menchero (2009)
MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN - academiaprisca.org -
Linguistics Research Center at University of Texas at Austin - liberalarts.utexas.edu
Early Indo-European Online - A series of online lessons for various ancient Indo-European Languages.
IE Lexicon: Semantic Index - Lexicon of Indo-European indexed by how a word is used.
Çineköy inscription - Luwian hieroglyphics and Phoenician. Confirming that before the rise of the great state, "Syria" referenced the Assyrian homeland rather than the area of the modern state.
Karatepe bilingual - Also called the Azatiwada inscription.
xšaθra- (realm; kingship): This Median word (attested in *xšaθra-pā- and continued by Middle Persian šahr "land, country; city") is an example of words whose Greek form (known as romanized "satrap" from Gk. σατράπης satrápēs) mirrors, as opposed to the tradition,[N 3] a Median rather than an Old Persian form (also attested, as xšaça- and xšaçapāvā) of an Old Iranian word.[63]
KJV PARALLEL BIBLE - kjvparallelbible.org - Site that compares the Greek Textus Receptus used in the original King James Version to the modern Greek Critical Text showing just how inconsequential differences are between them. Though important, this shows the work of textual criticism is "a tempest in a rather small teapot."
Dave Black's New Testament Greek Portal - newtestamentgreekportal.blogspot.com
Electronic Edition of Codex Sinaiticus - Codex Sinaiticus, a manuscript of the Christian Bible written in the middle of the fourth century, contains the earliest complete copy of the Christian New Testament.
Chief Priests, Sadducees, Pharisees, and Sanhedrin in Luke-Acts and Josephus (2009) by Steve Mason - academia.edu - Comparison of perspectives on first century Jewish groups. In particular, Luke-Acts presents the Pharisees as an outsider while Josephus identifies with the Pharisees.
The Slavonic Version of the Jewish War of Josephus (2011) by Etienne Nodet - academia.edu - Rather than a Christian forgery, argues convincingly that:
The Old-Russian version of the War, which includes non-Christian passages on Herod, John the Baptist and Jesus, is a translation of the first Greek edition by Josephus, before the polishing work of his assistants-censors.
Biblical Interpretation - bible-researcher.com
INTERPRETING THE BIBLE: THREE VIEWS (1994) - firstthings.com - Responses to the report of the Pontifical Biblical Commission on "The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church."
A Third Alternative to Concordism and Divine Accommodation: The Worldview Approach by Carol A. Hill - asa3.org - Volume 59, Number 2, June 2007
Grammatical-Historical Hermeneutics for Lay Readers - xenos.org - by Gary DeLashmutt and Dennis McCallum
WHAT I MEAN BY HISTORICAL-GRAMMATICAL EXEGESIS: WHY I AM NOT A LITERALIST (pdf) - biblicalstudies.org.uk - By Tremper Longman III
Ancient Prophecy: Near Eastern, Biblical, and Greek Perspectives By Martti Nissinen
Literary Devices and Terms - literarydevices.net
'"Literary" Craft and Performative Power in the Ancient Near East: The Hebrew Bible in Context' by Scott B. Noegel - washington.edu - An argument that literary devices such as paronmasia, polysemy and puns in ancient Near East texts often have significance beyond mere style and strength of expression.
Acrostic - Each line begins with a different letter in order of the alphabet.
Acrostics in the Hebrew Bible - bible-researcher.com
Alliteration - repetition of sound at the beginning of nearby words.
Apposition - Two parallel terms put side by side having the same referent.
Atbash - A cipher (like Pig Latin) where each letter in a word is replaced from its ascending order in the alphabet with a letter in descending order.
"Atbash in Jeremiah and Its Literary Significance: Part 1." - washington.edu
"Atbash in Jeremiah and Its Literary Significance: Part 2." - washington.edu
Chiasm - Two ideas presented and then presented again crisscrossed (as in the Greek letter Chi, Χ); also called ring structure.
Euphemism - A substitution of a word or expression for something offensive, taboo or uncomfortable.
"Euphemism" from EHLL - washington.edu -
Some Body Part Metaphors and Euphemisms in Biblical Hebrew - houseofdavid.ca
Gematria - Determination of a numerical value for words.
Hebrew Gematria: Finding Numerical Relationships in the Text - hebrew4christians.com
Irony - Feigned ignorance; stating the opposite of what is meant.
Irony in Scripture by Mark Wenger, 2014
Metaphor - directly associating a thing, word or phrase with something that it isn't to bring out the similarities.
Some Body Part Metaphors and Euphemisms in Biblical Hebrew - houseofdavid.ca
Metonymy - substitution of an attribute or association for the thing itself.
Synecdoche - a term for a part of something used to refer to the whole.
Metalepsis - using a word or phrase from figurative speech in a new context.
Numerology - symbolic use of numbers as opposed to strict accounting.
The Numerology of Genesis 1 - biologos.org - From The Narrative Form of Genesis 1: Cosmogonic, Yes; Scientific, No (pdf)
"Making Sense of the Numbers in Genesis" by Carol Hill (pdf)
Parallelism - a repetition of ideas, structure or rhythm in nearby phrases.
Paronmasia - punning; play on similar sounding words.
"Paronmasia" from EHLL - washington.edu
Drinking Feasts and Deceptive Feats: Jacob and Laban's Double Talk" by Scott B. Noegel - washington.edu - Highlights the extensive use of punning on names throughout the Jacob narrative.
"THE SHAME OF BAʿAL: THE MNEMONICS OF ODIUM" by Scott B. Noegel - Punning off an association of Ba'al with shame.
Polysemy - use of a word or phrase in which more than one possible meaning is intended.
"Polysemy" from EHLL - washington.edu
Contronyms - Words that have two or more opposing meanings.
Janus Parallelism - words having a different meaning with parallel stanzas above and below.
"Wordplay and Translation Technique in the Septuagint of Job." by Scott B. Noegel - washington.edu
"Janus Parallelism in Job and Its Literary Significance." by Scott B. Noegel - washington.edu
Simile - comparing two things to bring out their similarities.
Christ the Center Podcast: The Coherence-Based Genealogical Method with Peter Gurry - reformedforum.org - Introduction to methodologies of textual criticism.
EMANUEL TOV, Ph.D. J. L. Magnes Professor of Bible - emanueltov.info
KJV PARALLEL BIBLE - kjvparallelbible.org - Site that compares the Greek Textus Receptus used in the original King James Version to the modern Greek Critical Text showing just how inconsequential differences are between them. Though important, this shows the work of textual criticism is "a tempest in a rather small teapot."
Five Views on Biblical Inerrancy: A Review - thinktheology.co.uk - By Jamie Franklin | Friday 31 January 2014
Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy with Exposition - Though I approach, I will never be able to arrive at an inerrant view. Disagreements:
Inerrancy could only apply to the relatively few literalistic passages purporting to record precise data in the Bible, such as geographical descriptions or chronology relative to regnal events. It is extremely unclear to me how fallible humans using literary devices and phenomenological accounts could be inerrant in the CSBI sense. How do you have inerrant irony?!
One must allow for the natural distortion in second-hand accounts. In general, it seems the biblical authors are aware of this distortion and often deflect it by using various literary devices such as numerology, analogy and irony.
INERRANCY AND CHURCH HISTORY: IS INERRANCY A MODERN INVENTION? - tms.edu - Many of the quotes of Church Fathers support infallibility that approaches inerrancy, but not CSBI inerrancy.
Hebrew Word Lessons - hebrewwordlessons.com - "Understanding the Hebrew Bible one Word at a time." Well written and very often enlightening theological word studies by Sarah E. Fisher. Highlights:
In the beginning was the λόγος ... - bible-researcher.com
Heraclitus Fragments - heraclitusfragments.com Highlights: λόγος
Wisdom of Solomon - earlyjewishwritings.com - Apocryphal text written around 100 BC.
YESHUA: THE ETERNAL MEMRA By Raymond L. Gannon - mjbi.org -
MEMRA (= "Ma'amar" or "Dibbur," "Logos") by Kaufmann Kohler - jewishencyclopedia.com
The Targums and the Memra/Word of the Lord by Stone Crier - youtube.com
The Gospel of the Memra: Jewish Binitarianism and the Prologue to John (2001) by Daniel Boyarin - nes.berkeley.edu - The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 94, No. 3 (Jul., 2001), pp. 243-284 - Refutes the idea that Christianity and Judaism were completely separate by the 2nd century due to Christianity adopting a novel Logos theology.
Jesus Christ, Incarnation and doctrine of Logos - inters.org
Enki and Ninmaḫ - etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk - [me is the Sumerian equivalent of Logos] All the senior gods praised him: "O lord of wide understanding, who is as wise as you? Enki, the great lord, who can equal your actions? Like a corporeal father, you are the one who has the me of deciding destinies, in fact you are the me."
Heraclitus Fragments - heraclitusfragments.com Highlights: λόγος
Lao Tzu's Tao-Teh-Ching: A Parallel Translation Collection (pdf) - bu.edu - The Tao or Dao is the far eastern equivalent of the Logos laid out in the incredibly influential Tao Teh Ching.
Hebrew 8435. toledoth - biblehub.com - Concordance entry for the various spellings and uses of Toledot. Source material for table right. ->
Conjugation Hebrew Verb "Yalad" - conjugator.reverso.net - Modern Hebrew
"Narrative Toledot Formulae in Genesis: The Case of Heaven and Earth, Noah, and Isaac" by Sarah Schwartz - jhsonline.org (2016) JHS V. 16 A. 8 - Good introduction to the modern conceptions. Shows the relative awkwardness of the current ideas concerning Toledot verses and the structure of Genesis.
Was Noah Good?: Finding Favour in the Flood Narrative By Carol M. Kaminski - books.google.com - Difficulties relating the Genesis 5:1 to Noah's flood with current understandings.
These are the Generations: Identity, Covenant, and the 'toledot' Formula By Matthew A. Thomas - books.google.com - Organizing effects of the coordinating 'waw', pg. 72. In the TH, this coordinating effect has even fewer problems:
The out of formula Toledot at 10:32 ending the table of nations can be seen as ending the whole 'Noah series' of tablets, which starts at 5:1b.
New Discoveries in Babylonia About Genesis (1949, 5th ed.) by P. J..Wiseman - biblicalarchaeology.org.uk - The Toledot verses as colophons ending each tablet is the preferred embodiment of the Tablet Hypothesis.
Evidence of Tablets in the Text of Genesis (pdf) - bcresources.net
The Onomastic Evidence for Bronze-Age West Semitic (2004) - jstor.org - O'Connor, M. (2004). Journal of the American Oriental Society, 124(3), 439-470. doi:10.2307/4132275