Natural Theology

The current meaning of the question about God: present-day man asks himself about the ultimate questions. The experience of the finite and the problems it brings with it. Insufficiency of the partial answers given by science and the means offered by technology to reach the fullness man aspires for. The metaphysical dimension and existential dimension of the question of God. The philosophical nature of natural theology and its metaphysical character. Natural theology as the summit of the philosophical path. The rationalist or merely intellectual theodicy.

- Would you think the question of God's existence still comes up in our times? Why do you think so?
- How about science and technology? Don't these satisfy human aspirations?
- Is God's existence a mere theoretical question? In what way does the question about God have an existential dimension? (First of all, what do we mean by "existential"?)
- Shouldn't we be studying this matter in Theology? What does Philosophy have to do with the question about God?

Part One

THE EXISTENCE OF GOD

I. APPROACH TO GOD

2. The intelligence and the approach to God

The various functions of the intelligence: the speculative intellect (the knowledge of the first principles, science and wisdom) and the practical intellect (prudence and technique or art). The different methods in the use of the intelligence and the scope of reality it studies. The knowledge of God as sapiential knowledge.

- What are the various functions of the intellect?
- Give examples of things that we know through direct observation.
- Give examples of things that we know through reasoning.
- Give examples of things that we know through a witness (human faith).
- What do we mean by "sapiential knowledge"? Why is knowledge of God sapiential knowledge?

3. The ways of knowing God

Spontaneous knowledge of God and natural religion. Intellectual and personal knowledge of God. Christian faith strengthens and purifies the natural knowledge of God. Philosophical reflection on God. The revelation of God, faith and supernatural theology.

- Can the most isolated person in the remotest corner of the earth have an inkling that there is a God?
- Does philosophical knowledge of God contribute anything to a person's knowledge of Him?
- How about theological knowledge (includes God's revelation and our response to revelation, which is faith)?

4. The problem of the evidence of God's existence

The proportion between the knower and the thing known in immediate knowledge. The lack of proportion between God and man. The knowledge of God's existence is not self-evident. Knowing God through his works. Specific meaning of the word "proof" in the knowledge of God: differences between mathematical, logical, scientific and metaphysical proofs. Meaning and worth of "proofs". The role of personal dispositions. The possibility of revelation from God himself.

- Why is it not easy to know God?
- Is God's existence evident to us? (See no. 9 below.)
- Can you distinguish between truths which are (1) per se nota and (2) per aliud nota?
- How about truths which are (1.1) per se nota quoad se, and (1.2) per se nota quoad nos?
- Is there a further distinction in [1.2] (truths per se nota quoad nos)?
- Make a chart showing the distinctions made above.
- Explain what "proof" is, and what role it plays in our discussion.

II. THE RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF GOD:

NECESSITY AND POSSIBILITY OF THE DEMONSTRATION OF GOD'S EXISTENCE

5. Ontologism

Sources of ontologism and Malebranche's view. General structure of ontologism and its critique. Other contemporary forms of philosophy supporting immediate knowledge of God and the problems they pose.

- Just what is ontologism? Doesn't "ontology" sound like a good thing?
- Can you relate this problem to no. 4 above?
- Ever heard of St Anselm (see no. 10 below)?
- How about Rene Descartes?
- What's the problem with ontologism, huh?

6. Agnosticism

General view of agnosticism. Agnostic precedents in the classic and medieval periods. Kant's agnosticism: (a) the gnoseology of Kant and his idea of metaphysics; (b) God as an idea of pure reason and as a postulate of practical reason. Fideistic and modernist agnosticism. Positivist agnosticism: Hume, Stuart Mill, Comte. Neopositivist agnosticism: the Vienna Circle, Ayer, Carnap. Wittgenstein I and II. General critique of agnosticism.

- Just what is agnosticism?
- Can you compare/contrast this to points 4 and 5 above?
- Can you explain in a simple way Kant's agnosticism?
- What about fideistic and modernist agnosticism?
- What is positivist agnosticism?
- How about neopositivist agnosticism?
- And Wittgenstein, first edition? How about the second Wittgenstein?
- Is there anything wrong with agnosticism? If there is, can you explain it to me?

III. ATHEISM

7. General view of Atheism

Nature and origin of atheism. Basic characteristics and types of atheism. Their existential consequences: the absence of a supreme truth and of the ultimate meaning of reality and existence. Nihilism and its current forms. Atheism according to nos. 19-21 of the Const. Gaudium et spes. The problem of contemporary religious indifferentism and secularism. Society and religion.

- What do we mean by "atheism"? How does it differ from agnosticism?
- What consequences follow from atheistic premises?
- What is nihilism?
- What did the Apostolic Constitution Gaudium et spes say that is relevant to this issue?
- What is the danger in religious indifferentism? In secularism?
- In what way should society and religion interact?

8. Forms of theoretical atheism

The atheism of Feuerbach and Marx. Man or matter as radical self-production. The atheism of Nietzsche and Sartre. The personal and social causes of atheism.

- What did Feuerbach say about God? How about Marx?
- And Nietzsche? Sartre?
- What could possibly lead a person to deny God's existence?

IV. ARGUMENTS TO PROVE GOD'S EXISTENCE

9. Indirect approach to God

The knowledge of God per ea quae facta sunt (Rom 1:19-20). Types of arguments to reach the knowledge of God's existence.

- Remember point no. 4 above? How do we know God per ea quae facta sunt (Rom 1:19-20)?
- What types of arguments are there that lead us to say that God exists?

10. Arguments "a priori"

The argument of St. Anselm of Canterbury and the critique of St. Thomas Aquinas. Variations of the ontological argument throughout the history of philosophy. Critique of these arguments.

- What do we mean here by "a priori"? Is this the same as Kant's "a priori"? Explain the difference.
- Deja vu!!?? See no. 5 above!

11. Arguments "a posteriori"

Basic characteristics and historical overview. The arguments a posteriori among the Greeks, the Fathers of the Church and during the Middle Ages.

- What do we mean here by "a posteriori"? Is this the same as Kant's "a posteriori"? Explain the difference.
- Can you give some arguments given by the Greeks, the Fathers of the Church and during the Middle Ages?

12. The ways of St. Thomas Aquinas

Sources of the five ways and their metaphysical bases. General structure and analysis of the five ways: the proof by motion or change; the argument via efficient causality; the proof by contingency; the degrees of being; finality. Other Thomistic proofs of God's existence.

- Are the five ways a priori or a posteriori arguments?
- What is the basic structure common to all five ways?
- Explain the argument of each of the ways: (i) the proof by motion or change; (ii) the argument via efficient causality; (iii) the proof by contingency; (iv) the degrees of being; (v) finality.
- Make a chart showing each of the five ways showing the basic structure in each.
- Any other Thomistic proofs of God's existence?

13. Variations of some arguments a posteriori in modern theodicy: the cosmological and teleological arguments.

- What are the cosmological and teleological arguments of modern theodicy?

14. Anthropological ways to God

Man as a path towards God: truth; the natural desire for happiness; consciousness of moral law. Man as image of God. The dignity of man as a person and its foundation in God. God as ultimate end of man and source of the meaning of his whole existence. The way to God through freedom: the meaning of freedom.

- What elements in man point to God?

Part Two

THE BEING OF GOD

V. OUR KNOWLEDGE OF GOD

15. Knowability of the divine nature

Transcendence of God and human knowledge. Two extremes: the rationalist way to God and the total incomprehensibility of God in "negative theology". Analogy in the human knowledge of God. The three stages of analogical knowledge. The names of God: theological language.

- What are the two extremes to avoid with respect to our knowledge of God?
- If God is incomprehensible, can we know Him?
- If He is beyond human words, can we name Him and speak of Him?
- What is analogy?
- Does it have any basis in reality? What is that basis?

VI. WHO GOD IS

16. Divine perfections

God as the subsisting Act of Being itself. The simplicity of God: Pure Actuality. Unity and uniqueness. The divine fullness and goodness. Infinity, immensity and omnipresence of God. Immutability and divine life--God's eternity. The divine being and beauty.

- Using the conclusions of the five ways, can you argue all the way to God's perfections?
- Show how one uses reason to arrive at God's perfections: infinite perfection, uniqueness, immensity and omnipresence, immutability and eternity, His truth, His goodness, His beauty.

17. God's transcendence

Divine transcendence. God is absolute. The immanence and presence of God in the world. Pantheism and its forms.

- God is beyond the world but is in the world as well. Isn't that a contradiction? Can you elucidate this matter?
- What is pantheism? Are there other versions of it?

18. The spiritual and personal character of God

The degrees of being and the superiority of the personal being. The personal God and his immanent fullness of life and spirit. Divine knowledge: God as an infinite act of subsistent knowing Himself. The divine knowledge of created things and of the free and contingent things in the future. The divine will. God as act of subsistent love of Himself. God loves all that he does. God, the necessary and completely free Being. The joy and fullness of God. The active omnipotence of God.

- How about the Divine Intellect?
- And the Divine Will?
- And His power?

19. The creative work of God

God the Creator: significance of divine creative power as the cause of giving being ex nihilo. Creation and divine freedom. Divine creation is not a temporal act. The created being as novitas essendi. Conservation in being and the divine motion in the creative work. The distinction between primary cause of being and secondary causes of fieri. Their relationship in the causing of being.

- What does creation mean?
- Did God create freely? Explain.
- What does conservation mean?
- What's the difference between God's causality and man's causality? (To answer this, turn to the last section of Alvira, Clavell, and Melendo's Metaphysics on first cause and secondary causes--part III, chapter 7.)

20. Divine Creation and Science

The scientific study of the origin of the universe, the theory of evolution and its relation to divine creation. Updating of some topics of natural theology.

- What's all this talk of intelligent design?
- Look up the latest on this issue.

21. Divine providence

God's plan in the world and its fulfillment. Intervention of God in the world and in human life: deism and theism. The existence of evil, its origin and meaning. The "theology of process" (Whitehead and some contemporary authors). Divine providence and history. Openness to the order of grace: God calls man to a new life by coming to meet him in his finiteness and in his fallen nature.

- What exactly is Providence?
- Does deism believe in it?
- Where does evil come from, if there is Providence?
- What is the "theology of process"?

IMPORTANT LINKS

First Edition. Hong Kong, May 2006

JMO Mandia

For queries, please e-mail jmomandia at gmail dot com.