Metaphysics

OUTLINE AND GUIDE QUESTIONS

based on the book of Tomas Alvira, Luis Clavell & Tomas Melendo, Metaphysics. Manila: Sinagtala Publishers, 1991.

BRIEF OVERVIEW

(Click on link to jump to corresponding section.)

INTRODUCTION

Chapter I. The Nature of Metaphysics

Chapter II. Being--The Starting Point of Metaphysics

Chapter III. The Principle of Non-contradiction

PART ONE. THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING

Chapter I. Substance and Accidents

Chapter II. The Categories

Chapter III. The Act-Potency Structure of Being

Chapter IV. The Essence of a Being

Chapter V. The Principle of Individuation

Chapter VI. Esse: The Ultimate Act of Being

Chapter VII. The Subsisting Subject

PART TWO. THE TRANSCENDENTALS

Chapter I. The Transcendental Aspects of Being

Chapter II. The Unity of Being

Chapter III. Truth

Chapter IV. Goodness

Chapter V. Beauty

PART THREE. CAUSALITY

Chapter I. Knowledge of Real Causality

Chapter II. The Nature of Causality and the Kinds of Causes

Chapter III. Material Cause and Formal Cause

Chapter IV. Efficient Causes

Chapter V. Activity as the Act of Efficient Causality

Chapter VI. Final Causes

Chapter VII. The Causality of God and the Causality of Creatures

INTRODUCTION

Introduction--Chapter I

THE NATURE OF METAPHYSICS

1. The Notion of Metaphysics
   • What is Metaphysics?
   • What do we mean by "ultimate causes" and "universal causes"?
2. Metaphysics as the Science of Being qua Being
   • What do we mean by the material object? formal object?
   • What is being?
   • What is meant by studying being as being?
   • Properties of being? Does being own anything?
   • Who are the guys who started tinkering around with being?
   • What are the other names of Metaphysics?
3. Metaphysics and Human Knowledge
   • Does Metaphysics have anything to do with common sense ("spontaneous knowledge") ?
   • Does Metaphysics have any say in the other (particular) sciences?
4. How Metaphysics is Related to Faith and Theology
   • Does faith help Philosophy? How?
   • In what way does Philosophy serve the faith? In other words, why is it important to know Philosophy in the study of Theology?
   • Will any kind of Philosophy do?

Introduction--Chapter II

BEING--THE STARTING POINT OF METAPHYSICS

1. The Notion of Being (Ens)
   • What is ens?
2. The Essence (Essentia)--Manner of Being of Things
   • What does "essence" mean?
3. The Act of Being (Esse)
   • What do you mean by "esse"?
   • What do you mean by "act"?
   • Why is esse a universal act? What do you mean by "universal"?
   • Why is esse a total act? What do you mean by "total"?
   • Why is esse a constituent act? What do you mean by "constituent"?
     • Why is esse the most common of all acts?
     • Why is esse prior to any other act?
     • From the above, can we conclude that esse is a constituent act?
   • Why is esse therefore the first and innermost act of a being?
4. The Act of Being (Esse) As the Most Intensive Act
   • Just what do you mean by "intensive"?
   • Do all being possess esse in the same way?
   • Isn't esse a little vague and abstruse?
   • Why is "existence" not the same as "being", or "to exist" the same as "to be"? Does it make a difference?
5. Meaning of Esse as the Linking Verb in the Sentence (Esse in Language)
   • Is it important to discuss the use of the verb "to be" in a sentence? I thought we're doing Philosophy?
   • In what three ways is esse used in a sentence?
6. Characteristics of Man's Notion of Being (Esse in the Mind, Esse as we Conceive It)
   • How do we get to know being (ens)? How do we get to know being (esse)? Do we need to study Metaphysics first?
   • What do we mean when we say that "being" is not a generic notion? What do we mean by "maximum extension" and "maximum notional content or comprehension" (or "maximum intension"--with an "s", not a "t")?
   • What do we mean when we say that a term is analogical? Why do we say that "being" is an analogical notion?
   • How does the term "being" relate to "categorical notions" ("predicamental notions")? How does it relate to "transcendental notions"?

Introduction--Chapter III

THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-CONTRADICTION

1. The First Principle of Being
   • If "being" is the first notion our mind grasps, what is the first judgment it makes? (Note: Judgments are composed from notions, either by affirming one of the other, or denying.)
   • Why do we have to stipulate the two conditions: "at the same time" and "in the same sense"?
2. Different Ways of Expressing the Principle of Non-Contradiction
   • How do we express the principle of non-contradiction in the metaphysical realm (level of reality)?
   • How do we express it in the logical realm (level of thought)?
3. Inductive Knowledge of the First Principle
   • Induction is knowledge from effect to cause. These effects are known through observation and experience. Why do we say that the first principle is known through induction?
4. The Evidence of This Principle and its Defense "Ad Hominem"
   • Why can the first principle not be demonstrated? (Hint: demonstration starts from more evident principles.)
   • What is an "argumentum ad hominem"? Is it an argument properly called?
   • Why does one fall into relativism if he denies the first principle?
   • What is the "dictatorship of relativism" (see Joseph Card. Ratzinger's homily at the Pre-conclave Mass)?
5. The Role of the First Principle in Metaphysics
   • What role does the first principle play in Metaphysics?
   • What role does the first principle play in other areas of knowledge?
6. Other Primary Principles Based on the Principle of Non-Contradiction
   • What is the principle of the excluded middle?
   • What is the principle of identity?

| BACK TO TOP | INTRODUCTION | PART ONE | PART TWO | PART THREE |

Part One

THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF BEING

Part I--Chapter I

SUBSTANCE AND ACCIDENTS

1. The Nature of Substance and of the Accidents
   • What fact of experience leads us to the notions of substance and accidents?
   • What is "substance"?
   • What are "accidents"?
   • What are "logical accidents"? How do these differ from "metaphysical accidents"?
2. The Act of Being Belongs to the Substance
   • What do we mean when we say that the accidents do not have esse by themselves? If they don't have it, how do they subsist?
   • Why do we say that substance is ens in the strict sense?
3. The Composite of Substance and Accidents
   • What do we mean by "composite"?
   • How do we prove that a substance is different from its accidents?
   • If the substance is different from the accidents, how are they united?
   • What is the source or root of the unity between the substance and the accidents?
   • In what way are the substance and its accidents related?
   • Can you explain the previous query in terms of act and potency?
4. Our Knowledge of the Substance and of the Accidents
   • How do we get to know the substance-accident composite?
   • How do we get to know each of these principles?

Part I--Chapter II

THE CATEGORIES

1. The Notion of the Categories
   • What in the world are "categories"?
2. The Classification of the Nine Supreme Genera
   • What do you mean by "supreme genera"?
   • And "accidents which intrinsically affect the substance"? Which are these?
   • How about "extrinsic accidents"? Which are these?
   • Are there also partly intrinsic and partly extrinsic accidents? Which ones?
   • Are some accidents related to others as subject? as potency or act? as cause or effect?
   • Homework: Make a chart showing the points above.
3. Quality
   • What is the accident "quality"? How do you define it?
   • What are the kinds of qualities?
   • Homework: Make a chart showing the kinds of qualities.
4. Relation
   • How do you define the accident "relation"?
   • What is the difference between a real relation and a relation of reason?
   • What are the elements of a real relation?
   • Why are real relations important?
   • What are the types of real relations?
   • What does the term "transcendental relation" mean?
   • What are relations of reason? Can you give some examples?
   • Homework: Make a chart showing the kinds of relations.

Part I--Chapter III

THE ACT-POTENCY STRUCTURE OF BEING

1. The Notions of Act and Potency
   • How do we arrive at the notion of act and potency? What observation leads us to these concepts?
   • What do you mean by "act"?
   • What do you mean by "potency"?
   • In what way are they related?
2. Kinds of Act and Potency
   • What is "passive potency"? What is "first act" or "entitative act"?
   • What is "active potency"? What is "second act"or "action" or "operation"?
   • Homework: Make a chart showing the kinds of act and potency.
3. The Primacy of Act
   • Act is prior to potency in at least four ways. Can you name these four?
   • How would you describe act and potency in terms of being?
4. Relation Between Act and Potency as Constituent Principles of Being
   • Which one plays the role of subject?
   • Which one limits which?
   • Which one multiplies which?
   • Which one is participated, and which is participant?
   • Does the composition compromise the unity of the ens?
5. Potency and Possibility
   • Is potency the same as possibility?
   • What do you mean when you say that something is possible "in a relative way"?
   • Can something be possible, on the other hand, in an absolute way?
6. The Metaphysical Scope of Act and Potency
   • Up to what extent does the concept of act and potency apply?

Part I--Chapter IV

THE ESSENCE (ESSENTIA) OF A BEING

1. Essence: The Mode of Being of a Substance
   • What do you mean by "essence"?
   • Why are there different names for essence?
   • What is "nature"?
   • What is "quidditas" or "whatness"?
   • Why is essence also called the "universal"?
2. The Essence of Material Beings
   • What is "matter"? "prime matter"? "form"?
   • What do we mean by "primacy of form over matter"?
   • In spite of its having two constitutent principles, essence is one. Can you explain this?
3. The Essence in Spiritual Substances
   • What kind of composition is there, if any, in spiritual substances?

Part I--Chapter V

THE PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUATION

1. The Essence of Beings Exists Only in an Individuated Way
   • What is the role that matter plays in individuation?
2. The Multiplication of the Essence in Individuals
   • Explain how matter makes it possible for an essence to be multiplied.
3. Singularisation of the Essence
   • Explain how matter makes it possible for an essence to be singularised.
   • Can you describe the "process" of individuation?
4. The Individuation of Accidents and of Spiritual Substances
   • How are accidents individuated?
   • How are subsistent forms (spiritual substances) individuated?

Part I--Chapter VI

ESSE: THE ULTIMATE ACT OF BEING

1. The Act of Being is the Ultimate Foundation of All Reality
   • Why do we say that esse or the actus essendi is an act which encompasses all perfections? (Got a feeling of deja vu?)
   • Why do we say that esse is act in the fullest sense?
2. "Esse" and Essence are Really (i.e. in re) Distinct
   • Can you explain the distinction based on the limitation found in creatures?
   • Can you explain the distinction based on the multiplicity of created beings?
   • Can you explain the distinction based on the similarity found among beings?
   • In what way is this distinction the basis for the total, radical and most intrinsic dependence of creatures on the Creator?
3. The Composition "Essence - Act of Being" is the Basic Structure of Created Things
   • What do we mean when we say that essence and esse are two inseparable principles of beings?
   • Can you relate form, matter and act of being?
4. Esse, as Act, is the Nucleus of the Metaphysics of St Thomas Aquinas
   • Cite several important doctrines where St Thomas explains a principle using esse.

Part I--Chapter VII

THE SUBSISTING SUBJECT

1. The Notion of the Subsisting Subject
   • What do you mean by "suppositum"?
   • Explain the three characteristic marks or properties of the subsisting subject.
   • What are the elements that make up the suppositum?
   • What are the other different names that designate the subsisting subject?
2. The Distinction Between Nature and Suppositum
   • What is the difference between the nature (essence) and the suppositum?
3. The Act of Being Belongs to the Suppositum
   • I thought it belongs to the substance? Now what?
   • Why is esse the basis of the unity of the suppositum?
   • Why should all the perfections of a being be referred to or predicated of the suppositum?
4. The Person
   • What is a person?
   • Can you name some characteristics of the person?
   • What are some theological implications of the concept of person?

| BACK TO TOP | INTRODUCTION | PART ONE | PART TWO | PART THREE |

Part Two

THE TRANSCENDENTALS

Part II--Chapter I

THE TRANSCENDENTAL ASPECTS OF BEING

1. Transcendental Notions and the Categories
   • We advance in our knowledge of being in two ways: which are these?
   • What are categories?
   • What are transcendentals?
2. The Transcendental Aspects of Being
   • Homework: Make a chart explaining the transcendental notions.
3. Being: Foundation of the Transcendental Properties
   • Are the transcendentals realities or are they merely notions?
   • As realities, how are they related to being?
   • How about as notions?
4. Being and Its Properties are Analogical
   • What do we mean by analogical predication?
   • Is analogy in the level of being, or in that of knowledge?
   • What is the basis of analogy in the real world?

Part II--Chapter II

THE UNITY OF BEING

1. Transcendental Unity
   • What do we mean here by unity?
   • Is unity the same as being?
   • Do we grasp the concepts of "being" and "unity" at the same time?
2. Types and Degrees of Unity
   • What is unity of simplicity?
   • What is unity of composition?
   • What is substantial unity?
   • And accidental unity?
   • Finally, what is relational unity or unity of order?
   • Homework: Make a chart showing the types and degrees of unity.
3. Multiplicity
   • What does "multiplicity" mean?
   • How is it related to unity?
   • How is it related to being?
4. Notions Derived from Unity and Notions Opposed to It
   • Which relations arise from unity?
   • What does "identity" mean?
   • How about "equality"?
   • And "similarity"?
   • Which relations are opposed to unity?
   • What does "diversity" mean?
   • How about "difference"?
   • And "distinction"?
   • Homework: Make chart showing the notions derived from unity and notions opposed to it.
5. Aliquid ("Another" or "Something")
   • What are the different usages of the word "aliquid"?

Part II--Chapter III

TRUTH

1. Being and Truth
   • What is "truth"? (Note: "verum" or "veritas" = n. "truth"; "verus, -a, -um" = adj. "true")
   • "Veritas supra ens fundatur." Can you explain that?
   • Does the notion of "truth" add anything to the notion of "being"? Explain.
2. Truth is a Transcendental Property of Being
   • Are things true? What is ontological truth?
   • What is the relation between truth and the human mind?
   • How about its relation with the Divine mind?
3. The Truth in the Human Intellect
   • What do we mean when we say that falsehood can only arise in the human intellect?
   • What do we mean by the mind's capacity for the truth?
   • What is the basis for this capacity?

Part II--Chapter IV

GOODNESS

1. The Nature of Goodness
   • What do we mean by "good"? (Note: "bonum" or "bonitas" = n. "goodness"; "bonum" can also mean "a good" or "the good" "bonus, -a, -um" = adj. "good")
   • In what way is goodness related to being?
   • Does the notion of "goodness" add anything to the notion of "being"? Explain.
2. Goodness and Perfection
   • What do we mean when we say "something is perfect"?
   • Aristotle and St Thomas say that something is said to be complete or perfect in three ways. Name these ways.
   • What are the types of goodness?
   • What is ontological goodness?
   • When is a thing good "simpliciter"?
   • When is a thing good "secundum quid"?
   • Bonum est diffusivum sui. Can you explain this Latin phrase?
3. Good and Value
   • What does "value" mean?
   • Is it the same as the term "good"?

Part II--Chapter V

BEAUTY

1. The Nature of Beauty
   • What do we mean by "beauty"? (Note: "pulchrum" or "pulchritudo" = n. "beauty"; "pulcher, -a, -um" = adj. "beautiful")
   • How is beauty related to goodness?
   • What is the basis in reality of beauty?
2. Beauty and Perfection
   • What elements constitute beauty?
   • What is harmony or proportion?
   • What is integrity or completeness?
   • What is clarity?
3. Degrees of Beauty
   • What are the different levels of beauty that we can find?
4. Man's Perception of Beauty
   • Why is it that beauty seems to be subjective?

| BACK TO TOP | INTRODUCTION | PART ONE | PART TWO | PART THREE |

Part Three

CAUSALITY

Part III--Chapter I

KNOWLEDGE OF REAL CAUSALITY

1. The Experience of Causality
   • From where do we acquire the concepts of cause and effect?
   • Does the principle of causality need to be demonstrated?
2. The Principle of Causality
   • What are the different formulations of the principle of [efficient] causality?
   • What is the theological use of these formulations in St Thomas?
   • Name one important corollary of this principle.
   • Which principle comes first: that of non-contradiction, or that of causality?
   • Can we deduce this principle from that of being, just like the principle of non-contradiction? Why or why not?

Part III--Chapter II

THE NATURE OF CAUSALITY AND THE KINDS OF CAUSES

1. The Nature of Causality
   • What is causality?
   • Name three characteristic observations that can be made with the notions of "cause" and "effect".
2. Cause, Principle, Condition and Occasion
   • What is a principle?
   • What is a cause?
   • What is a condition?
   • What is an occasion?
   • Is it really important to know the differences between these? Illustrate with some examples.
3. The Main Kinds of Causes
   • What is an intrinsic cause?
   • What is an extrinsic cause?
   • What are "per se" causes?
   • What are "per accidens" causes?
   • Homework: Make a chart showing the different causes discussed.

Part III--Chapter III

MATERIAL CAUSE AND FORMAL CAUSE

1. The Nature of Material Causality
   • What do we mean by "material cause"?
   • Name two characteristics of the material cause.
   • What do we mean when we say that matter is a "passive potential principle"?
   • What do we mean when we say that matter is a principle that remains within the effect?
   • What do we mean when we say that matter is indeterminate?
   • What are the different types of material causality?
2. The Formal Cause
   • What do we mean by "formal cause"?
   • What is a substantial form?
   • What is an accidental form?
   • What is an exemplary cause?
   • Where can we find the exemplary cause?
3. The Relationship Between Material and Formal Causes
   • Do we find matter and form in spiritual substances?
   • Is matter the cause of the form, or form the cause of the matter?

Part III--Chapter IV

EFFICIENT CAUSES

1. The Nature of the Efficient Cause
   • What is an efficient cause?
   • Give three characteristics of efficient causality.
   • In what way is the formal cause (of the efficient cause) related to its action?
2. Types of Efficient Causes
   • What do we mean by "total cause"? By "partial cause"?
   • What do we mean by "universal cause"? By "particular cause"?
   • What do we mean by "univocal cause"? By "analogical cause"?
   • What do we mean by "principal cause"? By "instrumental cause"?
   • What do we mean by "necessary cause"? By "contingent cause"?
   • What do we mean by "determined cause"? By "free cause"?

Part III--Chapter V

ACTIVITY AS THE ACT OF EFFICIENT CAUSALITY

1. The Nature of Activity
   • What is activity?
   • What are its implications for the efficient cause?
   • What are transient or transitive actions?
   • What are immanent actions? And operations?
2. The Basis of Activity
   • Esse is the ultimate source of activity. Explain.
   • Nature is the specific principle of activity. Explain.
3. Operative Powers as the Proximate Principles of Activity
   • What is the proximate principle of activity?
   • Are the active powers and the activities substance, or are they accidents?

Part III--Chapter VI

FINAL CAUSES

1. The Nature of a Final Cause
   • What is a final cause?
   • Explain the three distinctive features of a final cause.
2. Types of Final Causes
   • What is an intrinsic end? A transcendental end?
   • What do you mean by "last end"? "Proximate ends"?
   • What is an honourable good or end? A pleasurable good? A useful good?
   • What is a produced end? A possessed end?
3. The Principle of Finality
   • Explain the principle of finality.
   • How about non-intelligent beings?
   • Why is there physical evil then?
   • What does natural finality imply?
4. The End is the Cause of the Other Causes
   • Explain why the end is the cause of the other causes.
   • Explain the mutual relationship among the causes.

Part III--Chapter VII

THE CAUSALITY OF GOD AND THE CAUSALITY OF CREATURES

1. The Limits of Created Causality
   • The causality of creatures is limited to the becoming (fieri) and to forms. Explain.
   • Contrast the creature's causality with God's causality.
   • Explain why created causality requires uncreated causality.
2. Characteristics of the Causality of the First Cause
   • Give the four characteristics of the causality of the first cause.
3. The Relationship Between the First Cause and Secondary Causes
   • Who is the efficient cause of the chair: God or the carpenter?
   • If God gives me grace to do something, am I therefore less a cause of my own activity? Why or why not?

| BACK TO TOP | INTRODUCTION | PART ONE | PART TWO | PART THREE |

First Edition. Hong Kong & Singapore, 28 April 2006

For queries, please e-mail jmomandia at gmail dot com.