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Search engine optimization

Search engine optimization (SEO) is the process of growing the quality and quantity of website traffic by increasing the visibility of a website or a web page to users of a web search engine.[1] SEO refers to the improvement of unpaid results (known as "natural" or "organic" results) and excludes direct traffic and the purchase of paid placement.

Additionally, it may target different kinds of searches, including image search, video search, academic search,[2] news search, and industry-specific vertical search engines.

Promoting a site to increase the number of backlinks, or inbound links, is another SEO tactic.

By May 2015, mobile search had surpassed desktop search.[3] As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work, the computer-programmed algorithms that dictate search engine behavior, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines, and which search engines are preferred by their targeted audience.

SEO is performed because a website will receive more visitors from a search engine when website ranks are higher in the search engine results page (SERP).

These visitors can then be converted into customers.[4] SEO differs from local Search engine optimization in that the latter is focused on optimizing a business' online presence so that its web pages will be displayed by search engines when a user enters a local search for its products or services.

The former instead is more focused on national or international searches.

Webmasters and content providers began optimizing websites for search engines in the mid-1990s, as the first search engines were cataloging the early Web.

Initially, all webmasters only needed to submit the address of a page, or URL, to the various engines which would send a web crawler to crawl that page, extract links to other pages from it, and return information found on the page to be indexed.[5] The process involves a search engine spider downloading a page and storing it on the search engine's own server.

A second program, known as an indexer, extracts information about the page, such as the words it contains, where they are located, and any weight for specific words, as well as all links the page contains.

All of this information is then placed into a scheduler for crawling at a later date.

Website owners recognized the value of a high ranking and visibility in search engine results,[6] creating an opportunity for both white hat and black hat SEO practitioners.

According to industry analyst Danny Sullivan, the phrase "Search engine optimization" probably came into use in 1997.

Sullivan credits Bruce Clay as one of the first people to popularize the term.[7] On May 2, 2007,[8] Jason Gambert attempted to trademark the term SEO by convincing the Trademark Office in Arizona[9] that SEO is a "process" involving manipulation of keywords and not a "marketing service." Early versions of search algorithms relied on webmaster-provided information such as the keyword meta tag or index files in engines like ALIWEB.

Meta tags provide a guide to each page's content.

Using metadata to index pages was found to be less than reliable, however, because the webmaster's choice of keywords in the meta tag could potentially be an inaccurate representation of the site's actual content.

Inaccurate, incomplete, and inconsistent data in meta tags could and did cause pages to rank for irrelevant searches.[10][dubious – discuss] Web content providers also manipulated some attributes within the HTML source of a page in an attempt to rank well in search engines.[11] By 1997, search engine designers recognized that webmasters were making efforts to rank well in their search engine, and that some webmasters were even manipulating their rankings in search results by stuffing pages with excessive or irrelevant keywords.

Early search engines, such as Altavista and Infoseek, adjusted their algorithms to prevent webmasters from manipulating rankings.[12] By relying so much on factors such as keyword density which were exclusively within a webmaster's control, early search engines suffered from abuse and ranking manipulation.

To provide better results to their users, search engines had to adapt to ensure their results pages showed the most relevant search results, rather than unrelated pages stuffed with numerous keywords by unscrupulous webmasters.

This meant moving away from heavy reliance on term density to a more holistic process for scoring semantic signals.[13] Since the success and popularity of a search engine is determined by its ability to produce the most relevant results to any given search, poor quality or irrelevant search results could lead users to find other search sources.

Search engines responded by developing more complex ranking algorithms, taking into account additional factors that were more difficult for webmasters to manipulate.

In 2005, an annual conference, AIRWeb (Adversarial Information Retrieval on the Web), was created to bring together practitioners and researchers concerned with Search engine optimization and related topics.[14] Companies that employ overly aggressive techniques can get their client websites banned from the search results.

In 2005, the Wall Street Journal reported on a company, Traffic Power, which allegedly used high-risk techniques and failed to disclose those risks to its clients.[15] Wired magazine reported that the same company sued blogger and SEO Aaron Wall for writing about the ban.[16] Google's Matt Cutts later confirmed that Google did in fact ban Traffic Power and some of its clients.[17] Some search engines have also reached out to the SEO industry, and are frequent sponsors and guests at SEO conferences, webchats, and seminars.

Major search engines provide information and guidelines to help with website optimization.[18][19] Google has a Sitemaps program to help webmasters learn if Google is having any problems indexing their website and also provides data on Google traffic to the website.[20] Bing Webmaster Tools provides a way for webmasters to submit a sitemap and web feeds, allows users to determine the "crawl rate", and track the web pages index status.

In 2015, it was reported that Google was developing and promoting mobile search as a key feature within future products.

In response, many brands began to take a different approach to their Internet marketing strategies.[21] In 1998, two graduate students at Stanford University, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, developed "Backrub", a search engine that relied on a mathematical algorithm to rate the prominence of web pages.

The number calculated by the algorithm, PageRank, is a function of the quantity and strength of inbound links.[22] PageRank estimates the likelihood that a given page will be reached by a web user who randomly surfs the web, and follows links from one page to another.

In effect, this means that some links are stronger than others, as a higher PageRank page is more likely to be reached by the random web surfer.

Page and Brin founded Google in 1998.[23] Google attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design.[24] Off-page factors (such as PageRank and hyperlink analysis) were considered as well as on-page factors (such as keyword frequency, meta tags, headings, links and site structure) to enable Google to avoid the kind of manipulation seen in search engines that only considered on-page factors for their rankings.

Although PageRank was more difficult to game, webmasters had already developed link building tools and schemes to influence the Inktomi search engine, and these methods proved similarly applicable to gaming PageRank.

Many sites focused on exchanging, buying, and selling links, often on a massive scale.

Some of these schemes, or link farms, involved the creation of thousands of sites for the sole purpose of link spamming.[25] By 2004, search engines had incorporated a wide range of undisclosed factors in their ranking algorithms to reduce the impact of link manipulation.

In June 2007, The New York Times' Saul Hansell stated Google ranks sites using more than 200 different signals.[26] The leading search engines, Google, Bing, and Yahoo, do not disclose the algorithms they use to rank pages.

Some SEO practitioners have studied different approaches to Search engine optimization, and have shared their personal opinions.[27] Patents related to search engines can provide information to better understand search engines.[28] In 2005, Google began personalizing search results for each user.

Depending on their history of previous searches, Google crafted results for logged in users.[29] In 2007, Google announced a campaign against paid links that transfer PageRank.[30] On June 15, 2009, Google disclosed that they had taken measures to mitigate the effects of PageRank sculpting by use of the nofollow attribute on links.

Matt Cutts, a well-known software engineer at Google, announced that Google Bot would no longer treat any nofollow links, in the same way, to prevent SEO service providers from using nofollow for PageRank sculpting.[31] As a result of this change the usage of nofollow led to evaporation of PageRank.

In order to avoid the above, SEO engineers developed alternative techniques that replace nofollowed tags with obfuscated JavaScript and thus permit PageRank sculpting.

Additionally several solutions have been suggested that include the usage of iframes, Flash and JavaScript.[32] In December 2009, Google announced it would be using the web search history of all its users in order to populate search results.[33] On June 8, 2010 a new web indexing system called Google Caffeine was announced.

Designed to allow users to find news results, forum posts and other content much sooner after publishing than before, Google caffeine was a change to the way Google updated its index in order to make things show up quicker on Google than before.

According to Carrie Grimes, the software engineer who announced Caffeine for Google, "Caffeine provides 50 percent fresher results for web searches than our last index..."[34] Google Instant, real-time-search, was introduced in late 2010 in an attempt to make search results more timely and relevant.

Historically site administrators have spent months or even years optimizing a website to increase search rankings.

With the growth in popularity of social media sites and blogs the leading engines made changes to their algorithms to allow fresh content to rank quickly within the search results.[35] In February 2011, Google announced the Panda update, which penalizes websites containing content duplicated from other websites and sources.

Historically websites have copied content from one another and benefited in search engine rankings by engaging in this practice.

However, Google implemented a new system which punishes sites whose content is not unique.[36] The 2012 Google Penguin attempted to penalize websites that used manipulative techniques to improve their rankings on the search engine.[37] Although Google Penguin has been presented as an algorithm aimed at fighting web spam, it really focuses on spammy links[38] by gauging the quality of the sites the links are coming from.

The 2013 Google Hummingbird update featured an algorithm change designed to improve Google's natural language processing and semantic understanding of web pages.

Hummingbird's language processing system falls under the newly recognized term of "conversational search" where the system pays more attention to each word in the query in order to better match the pages to the meaning of the query rather than a few words.[39] With regards to the changes made to Search engine optimization, for content publishers and writers, Hummingbird is intended to resolve issues by getting rid of irrelevant content and spam, allowing Google to produce high-quality content and rely on them to be 'trusted' authors.

In October 2019, Google announced they would start applying BERT models for english language search queries in the US.

Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) was another attempt by Google to improve their natural language processing but this time in order to better understand the search queries of their users.[40] In terms of Search engine optimization, BERT intended to connect users more easily to relevant content and increase the quality of traffic coming to websites that are ranking in the Search Engine Results Page.[41] The leading search engines, such as Google, Bing and Yahoo!, use crawlers to find pages for their algorithmic search results.

Pages that are linked from other search engine indexed pages do not need to be submitted because they are found automatically.

The Yahoo! Directory and DMOZ, two major directories which closed in 2014 and 2017 respectively, both required manual submission and human editorial review.[42] Google offers Google Search Console, for which an XML Sitemap feed can be created and submitted for free to ensure that all pages are found, especially pages that are not discoverable by automatically following links[43] in addition to their URL submission console.[44] Yahoo! formerly operated a paid submission service that guaranteed crawling for a cost per click;[45] however, this practice was discontinued in 2009.

Search engine crawlers may look at a number of different factors when crawling a site.

Not every page is indexed by the search engines.

The distance of pages from the root directory of a site may also be a factor in whether or not pages get crawled.[46] Today, most people are searching on Google using a mobile device.[47] In November 2016, Google announced a major change to the way crawling websites and started to make their index mobile-first, which means the mobile version of a given website becomes the starting point for what Google includes in their index.[48] In May 2019, Google updated the rendering engine of their crawler to be the latest version of Chromium (74 at the time of the announcement).

Google indicated that they would regularly update the Chromium rendering engine to the latest version.

[49] In December of 2019, Google began updating the User-Agent string of their crawler to reflect the latest Chrome version used by their rendering service.

The delay was to allow webmasters time to update their code that responded to particular bot User-Agent strings.

Google ran evaluations and felt confident the impact would be minor.

[50] To avoid undesirable content in the search indexes, webmasters can instruct spiders not to crawl certain files or directories through the standard robots.txt file in the root directory of the domain.

Additionally, a page can be explicitly excluded from a search engine's database by using a meta tag specific to robots (usually <meta name="robots" content="noindex"> ).

When a search engine visits a site, the robots.txt located in the root directory is the first file crawled.

The robots.txt file is then parsed and will instruct the robot as to which pages are not to be crawled.

As a search engine crawler may keep a cached copy of this file, it may on occasion crawl pages a webmaster does not wish crawled.

Pages typically prevented from being crawled include login specific pages such as shopping carts and user-specific content such as search results from internal searches.

In March 2007, Google warned webmasters that they should prevent indexing of internal search results because those pages are considered search spam.[51] A variety of methods can increase the prominence of a webpage within the search results.

Cross linking between pages of the same website to provide more links to important pages may improve its visibility.[52] Writing content that includes frequently searched keyword phrase, so as to be relevant to a wide variety of search queries will tend to increase traffic.[52] Updating content so as to keep search engines crawling back frequently can give additional weight to a site.

Adding relevant keywords to a web page's metadata, including the title tag and meta description, will tend to improve the relevancy of a site's search listings, thus increasing traffic.

URL canonicalization of web pages accessible via multiple URLs, using the canonical link element[53] or via 301 redirects can help make sure links to different versions of the URL all count towards the page's link popularity score.

SEO techniques can be classified into two broad categories: techniques that search engine companies recommend as part of good design ("white hat"), and those techniques of which search engines do not approve ("black hat").

The search engines attempt to minimize the effect of the latter, among them spamdexing.

Industry commentators have classified these methods, and the practitioners who employ them, as either white hat SEO, or black hat SEO.[54] White hats tend to produce results that last a long time, whereas black hats anticipate that their sites may eventually be banned either temporarily or permanently once the search engines discover what they are doing.[55] An SEO technique is considered white hat if it conforms to the search engines' guidelines and involves no deception.

As the search engine guidelines[18][19][56] are not written as a series of rules or commandments, this is an important distinction to note.

White hat SEO is not just about following guidelines but is about ensuring that the content a search engine indexes and subsequently ranks is the same content a user will see.

White hat advice is generally summed up as creating content for users, not for search engines, and then making that content easily accessible to the online "spider" algorithms, rather than attempting to trick the algorithm from its intended purpose.

White hat SEO is in many ways similar to web development that promotes accessibility,[57] although the two are not identical.

Black hat SEO attempts to improve rankings in ways that are disapproved of by the search engines, or involve deception.

One black hat technique uses hidden text, either as text colored similar to the background, in an invisible div, or positioned off screen.

Another method gives a different page depending on whether the page is being requested by a human visitor or a search engine, a technique known as cloaking.

Another category sometimes used is grey hat SEO.

This is in between black hat and white hat approaches, where the methods employed avoid the site being penalized but do not act in producing the best content for users.

Grey hat SEO is entirely focused on improving search engine rankings.

Search engines may penalize sites they discover using black or grey hat methods, either by reducing their rankings or eliminating their listings from their databases altogether.

Such penalties can be applied either automatically by the search engines' algorithms, or by a manual site review.

One example was the February 2006 Google removal of both BMW Germany and Ricoh Germany for use of deceptive practices.[58] Both companies, however, quickly apologized, fixed the offending pages, and were restored to Google's search engine results page.[59] SEO is not an appropriate strategy for every website, and other Internet marketing strategies can be more effective, such as paid advertising through pay per click (PPC) campaigns, depending on the site operator's goals.

Search engine marketing (SEM) is the practice of designing, running and optimizing search engine ad campaigns.[60] Its difference from SEO is most simply depicted as the difference between paid and unpaid priority ranking in search results.

Its purpose regards prominence more so than relevance; website developers should regard SEM with the utmost importance with consideration to visibility as most navigate to the primary listings of their search.[61] A successful Internet marketing campaign may also depend upon building high quality web pages to engage and persuade, setting up analytics programs to enable site owners to measure results, and improving a site's conversion rate.[62] In November 2015, Google released a full 160 page version of its Search Quality Rating Guidelines to the public,[63] which revealed a shift in their focus towards "usefulness" and mobile search.

In recent years the mobile market has exploded, overtaking the use of desktops, as shown in by StatCounter in October 2016 where they analyzed 2.5 million websites and found that 51.3% of the pages were loaded by a mobile device.[64] Google has been one of the companies that are utilizing the popularity of mobile usage by encouraging websites to use their Google Search Console, the Mobile-Friendly Test, which allows companies to measure up their website to the search engine results and how user-friendly it is.

SEO may generate an adequate return on investment.

However, search engines are not paid for organic search traffic, their algorithms change, and there are no guarantees of continued referrals.

Due to this lack of guarantees and certainty, a business that relies heavily on search engine traffic can suffer major losses if the search engines stop sending visitors.[65] Search engines can change their algorithms, impacting a website's placement, possibly resulting in a serious loss of traffic.

According to Google's CEO, Eric Schmidt, in 2010, Google made over 500 algorithm changes – almost 1.5 per day.[66] It is considered a wise business practice for website operators to liberate themselves from dependence on search engine traffic.[67] In addition to accessibility in terms of web crawlers (addressed above), user web accessibility has become increasingly important for SEO.

Optimization techniques are highly tuned to the dominant search engines in the target market.

The search engines' market shares vary from market to market, as does competition.

In 2003, Danny Sullivan stated that Google represented about 75% of all searches.[68] In markets outside the United States, Google's share is often larger, and Google remains the dominant search engine worldwide as of 2007.[69] As of 2006, Google had an 85–90% market share in Germany.[70] While there were hundreds of SEO firms in the US at that time, there were only about five in Germany.[70] As of June 2008, the market share of Google in the UK was close to 90% according to Hitwise.[71] That market share is achieved in a number of countries.

As of 2009, there are only a few large markets where Google is not the leading search engine.

In most cases, when Google is not leading in a given market, it is lagging behind a local player.

The most notable example markets are China, Japan, South Korea, Russia and the Czech Republic where respectively Baidu, Yahoo! Japan, Naver, Yandex and Seznam are market leaders.

Successful search optimization for international markets may require professional translation of web pages, registration of a domain name with a top level domain in the target market, and web hosting that provides a local IP address.

Otherwise, the fundamental elements of search optimization are essentially the same, regardless of language.[70] On October 17, 2002, SearchKing filed suit in the United States District Court, Western District of Oklahoma, against the search engine Google.

SearchKing's claim was that Google's tactics to prevent spamdexing constituted a tortious interference with contractual relations.

On May 27, 2003, the court granted Google's motion to dismiss the complaint because SearchKing "failed to state a claim upon which relief may be granted."[72][73] In March 2006, KinderStart filed a lawsuit against Google over search engine rankings.

KinderStart's website was removed from Google's index prior to the lawsuit, and the amount of traffic to the site dropped by 70%.

On March 16, 2007, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California (San Jose Division) dismissed KinderStart's complaint without leave to amend, and partially granted Google's motion for Rule 11 sanctions against KinderStart's attorney, requiring him to pay part of Google's legal expenses.[74][75]

Online advertising

Online advertising, also known as online marketing, Internet advertising, digital advertising or web advertising, is a form of marketing and advertising which uses the Internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers.

Many consumers find Online advertising disruptive[1] and have increasingly turned to ad blocking for a variety of reasons.

When software is used to do the purchasing, it is known as programmatic advertising.

Online advertising includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types of display advertising (including web banner advertising), and mobile advertising.

Like other advertising media, Online advertising frequently involves a publisher, who integrates advertisements into its online content, and an advertiser, who provides the advertisements to be displayed on the publisher's content.

Other potential participants include advertising agencies who help generate and place the ad copy, an ad server which technologically delivers the ad and tracks statistics, and advertising affiliates who do independent promotional work for the advertiser.

In 2016, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and broadcast television.[2]:14 In 2017, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $83.0 billion, a 14% increase over the $72.50 billion in revenues in 2016.[3] Many common Online advertising practices are controversial and, as a result, have been increasingly subject to regulation.

Online ad revenues also may not adequately replace other publishers' revenue streams.

Declining ad revenue has led some publishers to place their content behind paywalls.[4] In early days of the Internet, Online advertising was mostly prohibited.

For example, two of the predecessor networks to the Internet, ARPANET and NSFNet, had "acceptable use policies" that banned network "use for commercial activities by for-profit institutions".[5][6] The NSFNet began phasing out its commercial use ban in 1991.[7][8][9][10] The first widely publicized example of Online advertising was conducted via electronic mail.

On 3 May 1978, a marketer from DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation), Gary Thuerk, sent an email to most of the ARPANET's American west coast users, advertising an open house for a new model of a DEC computer.[6][11] Despite the prevailing acceptable use policies, electronic mail marketing rapidly expanded[12] and eventually became known as "spam." The first known large-scale non-commercial spam message was sent on 18 January 1994 by an Andrews University system administrator, by cross-posting a religious message to all USENET newsgroups.[13] In January 1994 Mark Eberra started the first email marketing company for opt in email list under the domain Insideconnect.com.

He also started the Direct Email Marketing Association to help stop unwanted email and prevent spam.

[14] [15] Four months later, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, partners in a law firm, broadly promoted their legal services in a USENET posting titled "Green Card Lottery – Final One?"[16] Canter and Siegel's Green Card USENET spam raised the profile of Online advertising, stimulating widespread interest in advertising via both Usenet and traditional email.[13] More recently, spam has evolved into a more industrial operation, where spammers use armies of virus-infected computers (botnets) to send spam remotely.[11] Online banner advertising began in the early 1990s as page owners sought additional revenue streams to support their content.

Commercial online service Prodigy displayed banners at the bottom of the screen to promote Sears products.

The first clickable web ad was sold by Global Network Navigator in 1993 to a Silicon Valley law firm.[17] In 1994, web banner advertising became mainstream when HotWired, the online component of Wired Magazine, and Time Warner's Pathfinder (website)[18] sold banner ads to AT&T and other companies.

The first AT&T ad on HotWired had a 44% click-through rate, and instead of directing clickers to AT&T's website, the ad linked to an online tour of seven of the world's most acclaimed art museums.[19][20] GoTo.com (renamed Overture in 2001, and acquired by Yahoo! in 2003) created the first search advertising keyword auction in 1998.[21]:119 Google launched its "AdWords" (now renamed Google Ads) search advertising program in 2000[22] and introduced quality-based ranking allocation in 2002,[23] which sorts search advertisements by a combination of bid price and searchers' likeliness to click on the ads.[21]:123 More recently, companies have sought to merge their advertising messages into editorial content or valuable services.

Examples include Red Bull's Red Bull Media House streaming Felix Baumgartner's jump from space online, Coca-Cola's online magazines, and Nike's free applications for performance tracking.[20] Advertisers are also embracing social media[24][25] and mobile advertising; mobile ad spending has grown 90% each year from 2010 to 2013.[26]:13 According to Ad Age Datacenter analysis, in 2017 over half of agency revenue came from digital work.[27] Display advertising conveys its advertising message visually using text, logos, animations, videos, photographs, or other graphics.

Display advertisers frequently target users with particular traits to increase the ads' effect.

Online advertisers (typically through their ad servers) often use cookies, which are unique identifiers of specific computers, to decide which ads to serve to a particular consumer.

Cookies can track whether a user left a page without buying anything, so the advertiser can later retarget the user with ads from the site the user visited.[28] As advertisers collect data across multiple external websites about a user's online activity, they can create a detailed profile of the user's interests to deliver even more targeted advertising.

This aggregation of data is called behavioral targeting.[29] Advertisers can also target their audience by using contextual to deliver display ads related to the content of the web page where the ads appear.[21]:118 Retargeting, behavioral targeting, and contextual advertising all are designed to increase an advertiser's return on investment, or ROI, over untargeted ads.[30] Advertisers may also deliver ads based on a user's suspected geography through geotargeting.

A user's IP address communicates some geographic information (at minimum, the user's country or general region).

The geographic information from an IP can be supplemented and refined with other proxies or information to narrow the range of possible locations.[31] For example, with mobile devices, advertisers can sometimes use a phone's GPS receiver or the location of nearby mobile towers.[32] Cookies and other persistent data on a user's machine may provide help narrowing a user's location further.[31] Web banners or banner ads typically are graphical ads displayed within a web page.

Many banner ads are delivered by a central ad server.

Banner ads can use rich media to incorporate video, audio, animations, buttons, forms, or other interactive elements using Java applets, HTML5, Adobe Flash, and other programs.

Frame ads were the first form of web banners.[19] The colloquial usage of "banner ads" often refers to traditional frame ads.

Website publishers incorporate frame ads by setting aside a particular space on the web page.

The Interactive Advertising Bureau's Ad Unit Guidelines proposes standardized pixel dimensions for ad units.[33] A pop-up ad is displayed in a new web browser window that opens above a website visitor's initial browser window.[34] A pop-under ad opens a new browser window under a website visitor's initial browser window.[26]:22 Pop-under ads and similar technologies are now advised against by online authorities such as Google, who state that they "do not condone this practice".[35] A floating ad, or overlay ad, is a type of rich media advertisement that appears superimposed over the requested website's content.

Floating ads may disappear or become less obtrusive after a pre-set time period.

An expanding ad is a rich media frame ad that changes dimensions upon a predefined condition, such as a preset amount of time a visitor spends on a webpage, the user's click on the ad, or the user's mouse movement over the ad.[36] Expanding ads allow advertisers to fit more information into a restricted ad space.

A trick banner is a banner ad where the ad copy imitates some screen element users commonly encounter, such as an operating system message or popular application message, to induce ad clicks.[37] Trick banners typically do not mention the advertiser in the initial ad, and thus they are a form of bait-and-switch.[38][39] Trick banners commonly attract a higher-than-average click-through rate, but tricked users may resent the advertiser for deceiving them.[40] "News Feed Ads", also called "Sponsored Stories", "Boosted Posts", typically exist on social media platforms that offer a steady stream of information updates ("news feed"[41]) in regulated formats (i.e.

in similar sized small boxes with a uniform style).

Those advertisements are intertwined with non-promoted news that the users are reading through.

Those advertisements can be of any content, such as promoting a website, a fan page, an app, or a product.

Some examples are: Facebook's "Sponsored Stories",[42] LinkedIn's "Sponsored Updates",[43] and Twitter's "Promoted Tweets".[44] This display ads format falls into its own category because unlike banner ads which are quite distinguishable, News Feed Ads' format blends well into non-paid news updates.

This format of online advertisement yields much higher click-through rates than traditional display ads.[45][46] The process by which Online advertising is displayed can involve many parties.

In the simplest case, the website publisher selects and serves the ads.

Publishers which operate their own advertising departments may use this method.

The ads may be outsourced to an advertising agency under contract with the publisher, and served from the advertising agency's servers.

Alternatively, ad space may be offered for sale in a bidding market using an ad exchange and real-time bidding.

This involves many parties interacting automatically in real time.

In response to a request from the user's browser, the publisher content server sends the web page content to the user's browser over the Internet.

The page does not yet contain ads, but contains links which cause the user's browser to connect to the publisher ad server to request that the spaces left for ads be filled in with ads.

Information identifying the user, such as cookies and the page being viewed, is transmitted to the publisher ad server.

The publisher ad server then communicates with a supply-side platform server.

The publisher is offering ad space for sale, so they are considered the supplier.

The supply side platform also receives the user's identifying information, which it sends to a data management platform.

At the data management platform, the user's identifying information is used to look up demographic information, previous purchases, and other information of interest to advertisers.

Broadly speaking, there are three types of data obtained through such a data management platform: This customer information is combined and returned to the supply side platform, which can now package up the offer of ad space along with information about the user who will view it.

The supply side platform sends that offer to an ad exchange.

The ad exchange puts the offer out for bid to demand-side platforms.

Demand side platforms act on behalf of ad agencies, who sell ads which advertise brands.

Demand side platforms thus have ads ready to display, and are searching for users to view them.

Bidders get the information about the user ready to view the ad, and decide, based on that information, how much to offer to buy the ad space.

According to the Internet Advertising Bureau, a demand side platform has 10 milliseconds to respond to an offer.

The ad exchange picks the winning bid and informs both parties.

The ad exchange then passes the link to the ad back through the supply side platform and the publisher's ad server to the user's browser, which then requests the ad content from the agency's ad server.

The ad agency can thus confirm that the ad was delivered to the browser.[49] This is simplified, according to the IAB.

Exchanges may try to unload unsold ("remnant") space at low prices through other exchanges.

Some agencies maintain semi-permanent pre-cached bids with ad exchanges, and those may be examined before going out to additional demand side platforms for bids.

The process for mobile advertising is different and may involve mobile carriers and handset software manufacturers.[49] An interstitial ad displays before a user can access requested content, sometimes while the user is waiting for the content to load.[50] Interstitial ads are a form of interruption marketing.[51][52] A text ad displays text-based hyperlinks.

Text-based ads may display separately from a web page's primary content, or they can be embedded by hyperlinking individual words or phrases to the advertiser's websites.

Text ads may also be delivered through email marketing or text message marketing.

Text-based ads often render faster than graphical ads and can be harder for ad-blocking software to block.[53] Search engine marketing, or SEM, is designed to increase a website's visibility in search engine results pages (SERPs).

Search engines provide sponsored results and organic (non-sponsored) results based on a web searcher's query.[21]:117 Search engines often employ visual cues to differentiate sponsored results from organic results.

Search engine marketing includes all of an advertiser's actions to make a website's listing more prominent for topical keywords.

The primary reason behind the rising popularity of Search Engine Marketing has been Google.

There were a few companies that had its own PPC and Analytics tools.

However, this concept was popularized by Google.

Google Ad words was convenient for advertisers to use and create campaigns.

And, they realized that the tool did a fair job, by charging only for someone's click on the ad, which reported as the cost-per-click for which a penny was charged.

This resulted in the advertisers monitoring the campaign by the number of clicks and were satisfied that the ads could be tracked.[54] Search engine optimization, or SEO, attempts to improve a website's organic search rankings in SERPs by increasing the website content's relevance to search terms.

Search engines regularly update their algorithms to penalize poor quality sites that try to game their rankings, making optimization a moving target for advertisers.[55][56] Many vendors offer SEO services.[26]:22 Sponsored search (also called sponsored links, search ads, or paid search) allows advertisers to be included in the sponsored results of a search for selected keywords.

Search ads are often sold via real-time auctions, where advertisers bid on keywords.[21]:118[57] In addition to setting a maximum price per keyword, bids may include time, language, geographical, and other constraints.[21]:118 Search engines originally sold listings in order of highest bids.[21]:119 Modern search engines rank sponsored listings based on a combination of bid price, expected click-through rate, keyword relevancy and site quality.[23] Social media marketing is commercial promotion conducted through social media websites.

Many companies promote their products by posting frequent updates and providing special offers through their social media profiles.Videos, interactive quizzes, and sponsored posts are all a part of this operation.

Usually these ads are found on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat.[58] Mobile advertising is ad copy delivered through wireless mobile devices such as smartphones, feature phones, or tablet computers.

Mobile advertising may take the form of static or rich media display ads, SMS (Short Message Service) or MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) ads, mobile search ads, advertising within mobile websites, or ads within mobile applications or games (such as interstitial ads, "advergaming," or application sponsorship).[26]:23 Industry groups such as the Mobile Marketing Association have attempted to standardize mobile ad unit specifications, similar to the IAB's efforts for general Online advertising.[52] Mobile advertising is growing rapidly for several reasons.

There are more mobile devices in the field, connectivity speeds have improved (which, among other things, allows for richer media ads to be served quickly), screen resolutions have advanced, mobile publishers are becoming more sophisticated about incorporating ads, and consumers are using mobile devices more extensively.[26]:14 The Interactive Advertising Bureau predicts continued growth in mobile advertising with the adoption of location-based targeting and other technological features not available or relevant on personal computers.[26]:14 In July 2014 Facebook reported advertising revenue for the June 2014 quarter of $2.68 billion, an increase of 67 percent over the second quarter of 2013.

Of that, mobile advertising revenue accounted for around 62 percent, an increase of 41 percent on the previous year.

Email advertising is ad copy comprising an entire email or a portion of an email message.[26]:22 Email marketing may be unsolicited, in which case the sender may give the recipient an option to opt out of future emails, or it may be sent with the recipient's prior consent (opt-in).

Businesses may ask for your email and send updates on new products or sales.

As opposed to static messaging, chat advertising refers to real-time messages dropped to users on certain sites.

This is done using live chat software or tracking applications installed within certain websites with the operating personnel behind the site often dropping adverts on the traffic surfing around the sites.

In reality, this is a subset of the email advertising but different because of its time window.

Online classified advertising is advertising posted online in a categorical listing of specific products or services.

Examples include online job boards, online real estate listings, automotive listings, online yellow pages, and online auction-based listings.[26]:22 Craigslist and eBay are two prominent providers of online classified listings.

Adware is software that, once installed, automatically displays advertisements on a user's computer.

The ads may appear in the software itself, integrated into web pages visited by the user, or in pop-ups/pop-unders.[59] Adware installed without the user's permission is a type of malware.[60] Affiliate marketing occurs when advertisers organize third parties to generate potential customers for them.

Third-party affiliates receive payment based on sales generated through their promotion.[26]:22 Affiliate marketers generate traffic to offers from affiliate networks, and when the desired action is taken by the visitor, the affiliate earns a commission.

These desired actions can be an email submission, a phone call, filling out an online form, or an online order being completed.

Content marketing is any marketing that involves the creation and sharing of media and publishing content in order to acquire and retain customers.

This information can be presented in a variety of formats, including blogs, news, video, white papers, e-books, infographics, case studies, how-to guides and more.

Considering that most marketing involves some form of published media, it is almost (though not entirely) redundant to call 'content marketing' anything other than simply 'marketing'.

There are, of course, other forms of marketing (in-person marketing, telephone-based marketing, word of mouth marketing, etc.) where the label is more useful for identifying the type of marketing.

However, even these are usually merely presenting content that they are marketing as information in a way that is different from traditional print, radio, TV, film, email, or web media.

Online marketing platform (OMP) is an integrated web-based platform that combines the benefits of a business directory, local search engine, search engine optimisation (SEO) tool, customer relationship management (CRM) package and content management system (CMS).

eBay and Amazon are used as online marketing and logistics management platforms.

On Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, LinkedIn, and other Social Media, retail online marketing is also used.

Online business marketing platforms such as Marketo, MarketBright and Pardot have been bought by major IT companies (Eloqua-Oracle, Neolane-Adobe and Unica-IBM).

Unlike television marketing in which Neilsen TV Ratings can be relied upon for viewing metrics, online advertisers do not have an independent party to verify viewing claims made by the big online platforms.[61] Advertisers and publishers use a wide range of payment calculation methods.

In 2012, advertisers calculated 32% of Online advertising transactions on a cost-per-impression basis, 66% on customer performance (e.g.

cost per click or cost per acquisition), and 2% on hybrids of impression and performance methods.[26]:17 Cost per mille, often abbreviated to CPM, means that advertisers pay for every thousand displays of their message to potential customers (mille is the Latin word for thousand).

In the online context, ad displays are usually called "impressions." Definitions of an "impression" vary among publishers,[62] and some impressions may not be charged because they don't represent a new exposure to an actual customer.

Advertisers can use technologies such as web bugs to verify if an impression is actually delivered.[63][64]:59 Similarly, revenue generated can be measured in Revenue per mille (RPM).[65] Publishers use a variety of techniques to increase page views, such as dividing content across multiple pages, repurposing someone else's content, using sensational titles, or publishing tabloid or sexual content.[66] CPM advertising is susceptible to "impression fraud," and advertisers who want visitors to their sites may not find per-impression payments a good proxy for the results they desire.[67]:1–4 CPC (Cost Per Click) or PPC (Pay per click) means advertisers pay each time a user clicks on the ad.

CPC advertising works well when advertisers want visitors to their sites, but it's a less accurate measurement for advertisers looking to build brand awareness.[68] CPC's market share has grown each year since its introduction, eclipsing CPM to dominate two-thirds of all Online advertising compensation methods.[26]:18[67]:1 Like impressions, not all recorded clicks are valuable to advertisers.

GoldSpot Media reported that up to 50% of clicks on static mobile banner ads are accidental and resulted in redirected visitors leaving the new site immediately.[69] Cost per engagement aims to track not just that an ad unit loaded on the page (i.e., an impression was served), but also that the viewer actually saw and/or interacted with the ad.[70][71] Cost per view video advertising.

Both Google and TubeMogul endorsed this standardized CPV metric to the IAB's (Interactive Advertising Bureau) Digital Video Committee, and it's garnering a notable amount of industry support.[72] CPV is the primary benchmark used in YouTube Advertising Campaigns, as part of Google's AdWords platform.

The CPI compensation method is specific to mobile applications and mobile advertising.

In CPI ad campaigns brands are charged a fixed of bid rate only when the application was installed.

In marketing, "attribution" is the measurement of effectiveness of particular ads in a consumer's ultimate decision to purchase.

Multiple ad impressions may lead to a consumer "click" or other action.

A single action may lead to revenue being paid to multiple ad space sellers.[73] CPA (Cost Per Action or Cost Per Acquisition) or PPP (Pay Per Performance) advertising means the advertiser pays for the number of users who perform a desired activity, such as completing a purchase or filling out a registration form.

Performance-based compensation can also incorporate revenue sharing, where publishers earn a percentage of the advertiser's profits made as a result of the ad.

Performance-based compensation shifts the risk of failed advertising onto publishers.[67]:4, 16 Fixed cost compensation means advertisers pay a fixed cost for delivery of ads online, usually over a specified time period, irrespective of the ad's visibility or users' response to it.

One examples is CPD (cost per day) where advertisers pay a fixed cost for publishing an ad for a day irrespective of impressions served or clicks.

The low costs of electronic communication reduce the cost of displaying online advertisements compared to offline ads.

Online advertising, and in particular social media, provides a low-cost means for advertisers to engage with large established communities.[58] Advertising online offers better returns than in other media.[67]:1 Online advertisers can collect data on their ads' effectiveness, such as the size of the potential audience or actual audience response,[21]:119 how a visitor reached their advertisement, whether the advertisement resulted in a sale, and whether an ad actually loaded within a visitor's view.[63][64]:59 This helps online advertisers improve their ad campaigns over time.

Advertisers have a wide variety of ways of presenting their promotional messages, including the ability to convey images, video, audio, and links.

Unlike many offline ads, online ads also can be interactive.[20] For example, some ads let users input queries[74] or let users follow the advertiser on social media.[75] Online ads can even incorporate games.[76] Publishers can offer advertisers the ability to reach customizable and narrow market segments for targeted advertising.

Online advertising may use geo-targeting to display relevant advertisements to the user's geography.

Advertisers can customize each individual ad to a particular user based on the user's previous preferences.[30] Advertisers can also track whether a visitor has already seen a particular ad in order to reduce unwanted repetitious exposures and provide adequate time gaps between exposures.[77] Online advertising can reach nearly every global market, and Online advertising influences offline sales.[78][79][80] Once ad design is complete, online ads can be deployed immediately.

The delivery of online ads does not need to be linked to the publisher's publication schedule.

Furthermore, online advertisers can modify or replace ad copy more rapidly than their offline counterparts.[81] According to a US Senate investigation, the current state of Online advertising endangers the security and privacy of users.[82] Eye-tracking studies have shown that Internet users often ignore web page zones likely to contain display ads (sometimes called "banner blindness"), and this problem is worse online than in offline media.[83] On the other hand, studies suggest that even those ads "ignored" by the users may influence the user subconsciously.[84] There are numerous ways that advertisers can be overcharged for their advertising.

For example, click fraud occurs when a publisher or third parties click (manually or through automated means) on a CPC ad with no legitimate buying intent.[85] For example, click fraud can occur when a competitor clicks on ads to deplete its rival's advertising budget, or when publishers attempt to manufacture revenue.[85] Click fraud is especially associated with pornography sites.

In 2011, certain scamming porn websites launched dozens of hidden pages on each visitor's computer, forcing the visitor's computer to click on hundreds of paid links without the visitor's knowledge.[86] As with offline publications, online impression fraud can occur when publishers overstate the number of ad impressions they have delivered to their advertisers.

To combat impression fraud, several publishing and advertising industry associations are developing ways to count online impressions credibly.[87][88] Because users have different operating systems, web browsers[89] and computer hardware (including mobile devices and different screen sizes), online ads may appear to users differently from how the advertiser intended, or the ads may not display properly at all.

A 2012 comScore study revealed that, on average, 31% of ads were not "in-view" when rendered, meaning they never had an opportunity to be seen.[90] Rich media ads create even greater compatibility problems, as some developers may use competing (and exclusive) software to render the ads (see e.g.

Comparison of HTML 5 and Flash).

Furthermore, advertisers may encounter legal problems if legally required information doesn't actually display to users, even if that failure is due to technological heterogeneity.[91]:i In the United States, the FTC has released a set of guidelines indicating that it's the advertisers' responsibility to ensure the ads display any required disclosures or disclaimers, irrespective of the users' technology.[91]:4–8 Ad blocking, or ad filtering, means the ads do not appear to the user because the user uses technology to screen out ads.

Many browsers block unsolicited pop-up ads by default.[92] Other software programs or browser add-ons may also block the loading of ads, or block elements on a page with behaviors characteristic of ads (e.g.

HTML autoplay of both audio and video).

Approximately 9% of all online page views come from browsers with ad-blocking software installed,[93] and some publishers have 40%+ of their visitors using ad-blockers.[4] Some web browsers offer privacy modes where users can hide information about themselves from publishers and advertisers.

Among other consequences, advertisers can't use cookies to serve targeted ads to private browsers.

Most major browsers have incorporated Do Not Track options into their browser headers, but the regulations currently are only enforced by the honor system.[94][95][96] The collection of user information by publishers and advertisers has raised consumer concerns about their privacy.[31][64] Sixty percent of Internet users would use Do Not Track technology to block all collection of information if given an opportunity.[97][98] Over half of all Google and Facebook users are concerned about their privacy when using Google and Facebook, according to Gallup.[99] Many consumers have reservations about online behavioral targeting.

By tracking users' online activities, advertisers are able to understand consumers quite well.

Advertisers often use technology, such as web bugs and respawning cookies, to maximize their abilities to track consumers.[64]:60[100] According to a 2011 survey conducted by Harris Interactive, over half of Internet users had a negative impression of online behavioral advertising, and forty percent feared that their personally-identifiable information had been shared with advertisers without their consent.[101][102] Consumers can be especially troubled by advertisers targeting them based on sensitive information, such as financial or health status.[100] Furthermore, some advertisers attach the MAC address of users' devices to their 'demographic profiles' so they can be retargeted (regardless of the accuracy of the profile) even if the user clears their cookies and browsing history.[citation needed] Scammers can take advantage of consumers' difficulties verifying an online persona's identity,[103]:1 leading to artifices like phishing (where scam emails look identical to those from a well-known brand owner)[104] and confidence schemes like the Nigerian "419" scam.[105][106][107] The Internet Crime Complaint Center received 289,874 complaints in 2012, totaling over half a billion dollars in losses, most of which originated with scam ads.[108][109] Consumers also face malware risks, i.e.

malvertising, when interacting with Online advertising.

Cisco's 2013 Annual Security Report revealed that clicking on ads was 182 times more likely to install a virus on a user's computer than surfing the Internet for porn.[110][111] For example, in August 2014 Yahoo's advertising network reportedly saw cases of infection of a variant of Cryptolocker ransomware.[112] The Internet's low cost of disseminating advertising contributes to spam, especially by large-scale spammers.

Numerous efforts have been undertaken to combat spam, ranging from blacklists to regulatorily-required labeling to content filters, but most of those efforts have adverse collateral effects, such as mistaken filtering.[6] In general, consumer protection laws apply equally to online and offline activities.[91]:i However, there are questions over which jurisdiction's laws apply and which regulatory agencies have enforcement authority over transborder activity.[113] As with offline advertising, industry participants have undertaken numerous efforts to self-regulate and develop industry standards or codes of conduct.

Several United States advertising industry organizations jointly published Self-Regulatory Principles for Online Behavioral Advertising based on standards proposed by the FTC in 2009.[114] European ad associations published a similar document in 2011.[115] Primary tenets of both documents include consumer control of data transfer to third parties, data security, and consent for collection of certain health and financial data.[114]:2–4 Neither framework, however, penalizes violators of the codes of conduct.[116] Privacy regulation can require users' consent before an advertiser can track the user or communicate with the user.

However, affirmative consent ("opt in") can be difficult and expensive to obtain.[64]:60 Industry participants often prefer other regulatory schemes.

Different jurisdictions have taken different approaches to privacy issues with advertising.

The United States has specific restrictions on online tracking of children in the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA),[114]:16–17 and the FTC has recently expanded its interpretation of COPPA to include requiring ad networks to obtain parental consent before knowingly tracking kids.[117] Otherwise, the U.S.

Federal Trade Commission frequently supports industry self-regulation, although increasingly it has been undertaking enforcement actions related to online privacy and security.[118] The FTC has also been pushing for industry consensus about possible Do Not Track legislation.

In contrast, the European Union's "Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive" restricts websites' ability to use consumer data much more comprehensively.

The EU limitations restrict targeting by online advertisers; researchers have estimated Online advertising effectiveness decreases on average by around 65% in Europe relative to the rest of the world.[64]:58 Many laws specifically regulate the ways online ads are delivered.

For example, Online advertising delivered via email is more regulated than the same ad content delivered via banner ads.

Among other restrictions, the U.S.

CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 requires that any commercial email provide an opt-out mechanism.[113] Similarly, mobile advertising is governed by the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991 (TCPA), which (among other restrictions) requires user opt-in before sending advertising via text messaging.

Click-through rate

Click-through rate (CTR) is the ratio of users who click on a specific link to the number of total users who view a page, email, or advertisement.

It is commonly used to measure the success of an online advertising campaign for a particular website as well as the effectiveness of email campaigns.[1][2] Click-through rates for ad campaigns vary tremendously.

The very first online display ad shown for AT&T on the website HotWired in 1994, had a 44% Click-through rate.[3] With time, the overall rate of user's clicks on webpage banner ads has decreased.

The purpose of Click-through rates is to measure the ratio of clicks to impressions of an online ad or email marketing campaign.

Generally the higher the CTR the more effective the marketing campaign has been at bringing people to a website.[4] Most commercial websites are designed to elicit some sort of action, whether it be to buy a book, read a news article, watch a music video, or search for a flight.

People rarely visit websites with the intention of viewing advertisements, in the same way that few people watch television to view the commercials.[5] While marketers want to know the reaction of the web visitor, with current technology it is nearly impossible to quantify the emotional reaction to the site and the effect of that site on the firm's brand.

However, Click-through rate is an easy piece of data to acquire.

The Click-through rate measures the proportion of visitors who initiated an advertisement that redirected them to another page where they might purchase an item or learn more about a product or service.

Forms of interaction with advertisements other than clicking is possible, but rare; "Click-through rate" is the most commonly used term to describe the efficacy of an advert.[5] The Click-through rate of an advertisement is the number of times a click is made on the ad, divided by the number of times the ad is "served", that is, shown (also called impressions), expressed as a percentage: Click-through rates for banner ads have decreased over time.[6] When banner ads first started to appear, it was not uncommon to have rates above five percent.

They have fallen since then, currently averaging closer to 0.2 or 0.3 percent.[7] In most cases, a 2% Click-through rate would be considered very successful, though the exact number is hotly debated and would vary depending on the situation.

The average Click-through rate of 3% in the 1990s declined to 2.4%–0.4% by 2002.[8] Since advertisers typically pay more for a high Click-through rate, getting many click-throughs with few purchases is undesirable to advertisers.[7] Similarly, by selecting an appropriate advertising site with high affinity (e.g., a movie magazine for a movie advertisement), the same banner can achieve a substantially higher CTR.

Though personalized ads, unusual formats, and more obtrusive ads typically result in higher Click-through rates than standard banner ads, overly intrusive ads are often avoided by viewers.[8][9] Modern online advertising has moved beyond just using banner ads.

Popular search engines allow advertisers to display ads in with the search results triggered by a search user.

These ads are usually in text format and may include additional links and information like phone numbers, addresses and specific product pages.[10] This additional information moves away from the poor user experience that can be created from intrusive banner ads and provides useful information to the search user, resulting in higher Click-through rates for this format of pay-per-click Advertising.

Having high Click-through rate isn't the only goal for an online advertiser, who may develop campaigns to raise awareness for the overall gain of valuable traffic, sacrificing some Click-through rate for that purpose.

Search engine advertising has become a significant element of the Web browsing experience.

Choosing the right ads for the query and the order in which they are displayed greatly affects the probability that a user will see and click on each ad.

This ranking has a strong impact on the revenue the search engine receives from the ads.

Further, showing the user an ad that they prefer to click on improves user satisfaction.

For these reasons, there is an increasing interest in accurately estimating the Click-through rate of ads in a recommender system.[citation needed] An email Click-through rate is defined as the number of recipients who click one or more links in an email and landed on the sender's website, blog, or other desired destination.

More simply, email Click-through rates represent the number of clicks that your email generated.[11][12] Email Click-through rate is expressed as a percentage, and calculated by dividing the number of click throughs by the number of tracked message deliveries.[13] Most email marketers use this metrics along with open rate, bounce rate and other metrics, to understand the effectiveness and success of their email campaign.[14] In general there is no ideal Click-through rate.

This metric can vary based on the type of email sent, how frequently emails are sent, how the list of recipients is segmented, how relevant the content of the email is to the audience, and many other factors.[15] Even time of day can affect Click-through rate.

Sunday appears to generate considerably higher Click-through rates on average when compared to the rest of the week.[16] Every year various types of research studies are conducted to track the overall effectiveness of Click-through rates in email marketing.[17][18] Experts on Search engine optimization (SEO) have claimed since the mid-2010s that Click-through rate has an impact on organic rankings.

Numerous case studies have been published to support this theory.

Proponents supporting this theory often claim that Click-through rate is a ranking signal for Google's RankBrain algorithm.

In a video interview with Dan Petrovic, he states, "There is absolutely no shadow of a doubt that CTR is a ranking signal.

CTR is not only a ranking signal, CTR is essential to Google’s self-analytics."[19] In an article by Neil Patel, Patel quotes Matt Cutts saying, "It doesn’t really matter how often you show up.

It matters how often you get clicked on..." He also cites a study where a 20% increase in Click-through rates resulted in 30% more organic clicks.[20] Opponents of this theory claim Click-through rate has little or no impact on organic rankings.

Bartosz Góralewicz published the results of an experiment on Search Engine Land where he claims, "Despite popular belief, Click-through rate is not a ranking factor.

Even massive organic traffic won’t affect your website’s organic positions."[21] More recently, Barry Schwartz wrote on Search Engine Land, "...Google has said countless times, in writing, at conferences, that CTR is not used in their ranking algorithm."[22]

Search advertising

In Internet marketing, Search advertising is a method of placing online advertisements on web pages that show results from search engine queries.

Through the same search-engine advertising services, ads can also be placed on Web pages with other published content.[1] Search advertisements are targeted to match key search terms (called keywords) entered on search engines.

This targeting ability has contributed to the attractiveness of Search advertising for advertisers.

Consumers will often use a search engine to identify and compare purchasing options immediately before making a purchasing decision.

The opportunity to present consumers with advertisements tailored to their immediate buying interests encourages consumers to click on search ads instead of unpaid search results, which are often less relevant.

For the online user, Sponsored Search Advertisement offers highly relevant search results which are based on the consumer’s own queries and, thus, they are considered less intrusive than banner advertisements or pop-ups advertising.

In addition, Sponsored Search Advertisement reduces online user search costs and increases the accessibility to useful information within a limited time frame.

Consequently, Sponsored Search Advertisement has become an important element of online users browsing and information searching experiences on the Web.

Search advertising is an alternative to SEO and SEM.

Web advertising before 1998 consisted of banner advertisements generally priced by the number of impressions delivered (i.e., Cost-Per-milli (CPM) pricing).

GoTo.com (renamed Overture in 2001, and acquired by Yahoo! in 2003) created the first sponsored search auction, and Google’s first sponsored search auction followed in 2002.[2] Search advertising is sold and delivered on the basis of keywords.

The user of a search engine enters keywords to make queries.

A keyword may consist of more than one word.[3] The user interested in the product or service searches using a specific keyword or search term which lets them interact with advertiser's website.

Search engines conduct running auctions to sell ads according to bids received for keywords and relative relevance of user keywords to ads in the inventory.

The keyword “home mortgage refinancing" is more expensive than one that is in less demand, such as “used bicycle tires.” Profit potential of the keywords also plays into bids for ads that advertisers want displayed when the keywords are searched by the user.

For example, "used book" may be a popular keyword but may have low profit potential and the advertiser bids will reflect that.

Search engines build indexes of Web pages using a Web crawler.

When the publisher of a Web page arranges with a search engine firm to have ads served up on that page, the search engine applies their indexing technology to associate the content of that page with keywords.

Those keywords are then fed into the same auctioning system that is used by advertisers to buy ads on both search engine results pages.

Advertising based on keywords in the surrounding content or context is referred to as Contextual advertising.

This is usually less profitable than Search advertising which is based on user intent expressed through their keywords.[citation needed] Advertisers can choose whether to buy ads on search result pages (Search advertising), published content pages (contextual advertising), or both.

Bids on the same keywords are usually higher in Search advertising than in contextual advertising.[citation needed] In 2013, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals held in Lens.com, Inc.

v.

1-800 Contacts, Inc.

that online contact lens seller Lens.com did not commit trademark infringement when it purchased search advertisements using competitor 1-800 Contacts' federally registered 1800 CONTACTS trademark as a keyword.

In August 2016, the Federal Trade Commission filed an administrative complaint against 1-800 Contacts alleging, among other things, that its Search advertising trademark enforcement practices have unreasonably restrained competition in violation of the FTC Act.

1-800 Contacts has denied all wrongdoing and is scheduled to appear before an FTC administrative law judge in April 2017.[4] Search advertising activities can be measured in five ways: CPM: Cost per thousand viewers was the original method used for pricing online advertisements.

CPM remains the most common method for pricing banner ads.

CTR: Click-through rates measure the number of times an ad is clicked as a percentage of views of the Web page on which the ad appears.

Banner ads have CTRs that are generally 0.5 percent or less.

In comparison, individual search engine ads can have CTRs of 10 percent, even though they appear alongside organic search results and competing paid search advertisements.[5] CPA: Cost per action quantifies costs for completing specified activities such as attracting a new customer or making a sale.

Affiliate networks operate on a CPA basis.

CPA systems function most effectively when sales cycles are short and easily tracked.

Longer sales cycles rely on exposure to multiple types of ads to create brand awareness and purchasing interest before a sale is made.

Longer sales cycles and sales requiring multiple customer contacts can be difficult to track, leading to a reluctance by publishers to participate in CPA programs beyond initial lead generation.

CPC: Cost per click tracks the cost of interacting with a client or potential client.

In traditional marketing, CPC is viewed as a one-way process of reaching target audiences through means such as direct mail, radio ads and television ads.

Search advertising provides opportunities for two-way contacts through web-based chat, Internet-based calls, call-back requests or mailing list sign-ups.

There are some guidelines to establish minimum acceptable counting procedure for clicks.

Each and every click has a life cycle which is known as click referral cycle.

It comprises four stages: Initiated click, Measured click, Received click and Resolved click.[6] TM: Total minutes is a metric being used by Nielsen/NetRatings to measure total time spent on a Web page rather than the number of Web page views.

On July 10, 2007, Nielsen announced that they would be relying on TM as their primary metric for measuring Web page popularity, due to changes in the way Web pages provide content through audio and video streaming and by refreshing the same page without totally reloading it.[7] Page refreshes are one aspect of Rich Internet Applications (RIA).

RIA technologies include AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) and Microsoft Silverlight.

Methodological questions regarding the use of total minutes for Search advertising include how to account for Internet users that keep several browser windows open simultaneously, or who simply leave one window open unattended for long periods of time.

Another question involves tracking total minutes on HTML pages that are stateless and do therefore do not generate server-side data on the length of time that they are viewed.[8] Search engine advertisements are purchased on the basis of keywords.

Ad buyers engage in running actions for keywords, with popular keywords costing several dollars per click through.

Search engines use algorithms to determine the position of ads according to click through rates.

Ads with poor click through rates can be pushed down to the bottom of the first page of search results or onto subsequent pages.

Even though advertisers are only paying for click throughs, the algorithms assigning ad positions based on ad popularity provide incentives for optimizing keyword selection and other cost control measures.[9] Without cost control measures, it is possible for ad buyers to spend twenty five to fifty percent of their ad budget ineffectively.[5] Cost control measures can include:

Niche blogging

Niche blogging is the act of creating a blog with the intent of using it to market to a particular niche market.

Niche blogs (also commonly referred to as "niche websites") may appeal to "geographic areas, a specialty industry, ethnic or age groups, or any other particular group of people."[1] While it could be argued that every blog is, in some form, a niche blog, the term as it applies to marketing refers to a particular kind of blog.

Neither blogging nor niche marketing is a new concept.

However, only in recent years has the concept of a niche blog come into being.

Usually, niche blogs will contain affiliate links or advertisements of some sort (pay-per-click or products or both).

In some cases, the purpose of the niche blog is to incite the reader into visiting another website which may then attempt to sell the reader a product or service.

Niche blogging and splogging are often hard to distinguish.

However, Niche blogging's reliance on pay-per-click advertising and other revenue streams usually requires such blogs to have valuable content related to their chosen niche, unlike a splog.

The popularity of Niche blogging among new marketers can be attributed to several factors, including cost, adaptability and generating traffic.

Blogging can be a low-cost operation using free hosting platforms, including WordPress, Blogger and Tumblr.

Bloggers who choose to invest may purchase domain names or self-host their blogs for a cost.

Self-hosted blogs are popular, as Google also takes a website's speed as a ranking factor therefore SEOs recommend webmasters to host their blogs on high quality servers.

As far as company-run websites go, niche blogs are an effective marketing tool due to their less sale-oriented nature.

By providing useful content for users, rather than just pitching sales, niche blogs encourage product and brand awareness, and are therefore popular in a range of industries as an addition to company websites.[2] Niche bloggers generate revenue by targeting readers in their niche, whether that be a group of fellow professionals in a business, or potential clients.

The choice of target audience influences which topics bloggers choose to cover, as well as how they present and promote their writings.[3] If built correctly niche blogs can provide their bloggers with a pleasant revenue.[4] From just some extra income to help pay monthly bills to generous amounts that can replace their full-time job salary or overtake it entirely.

The reason is that this kind of blogs target a specific type of audience that is closer to the final stage of the purchase funnel.[citation needed]

Affiliate marketing

Affiliate marketing is a type of performance-based marketing in which a business rewards one or more affiliates for each visitor or customer brought by the affiliate's own marketing efforts.[1][2][3][4][5] The industry has four core players:[citation needed] The market has grown in complexity, resulting in the emergence of a secondary tier of players, including affiliate management agencies, super-affiliates, and specialized third party vendors.[citation needed] Affiliate marketing overlaps with other Internet marketing methods to some degree because affiliates often use regular advertising methods.

Those methods include organic search engine optimization (SEO), paid search engine marketing (PPC – Pay Per Click), e-mail marketing, content marketing, and (in some sense) display advertising.

On the other hand, affiliates sometimes use less orthodox techniques, such as publishing reviews of products or services offered by a partner.[citation needed] Affiliate marketing is commonly confused with referral marketing, as both forms of marketing use third parties to drive sales to the retailer.

The two forms of marketing are differentiated, however, in how they drive sales, where Affiliate marketing relies purely on financial motivations, while referral marketing relies more on trust and personal relationships.[citation needed] Affiliate marketing is frequently overlooked by advertisers.[6] While search engines, e-mail, and web site syndication capture much of the attention of online retailers, Affiliate marketing carries a much lower profile.

Still, affiliates continue to play a significant role in e-retailers' marketing strategies.[citation needed] The concept of revenue sharing—paying commission for referred business—predates Affiliate marketing and the Internet.

The translation of the revenue share principles to mainstream e-commerce happened in November 1994,[7] almost four years after the origination of the World Wide Web.

The concept of Affiliate marketing on the Internet was conceived of, put into practice and patented by William J.

Tobin, the founder of PC Flowers & Gifts.

Launched on the Prodigy Network in 1989, PC Flowers & Gifts remained on the service until 1996.

By 1993, PC Flowers & Gifts generated sales in excess of $6 million per year on the Prodigy service.

In 1998, PC Flowers and Gifts developed the business model of paying a commission on sales to the Prodigy Network.[8][9] In 1994, Tobin launched a beta version of PC Flowers & Gifts on the Internet in cooperation with IBM, who owned half of Prodigy.[10] By 1995 PC Flowers & Gifts had launched a commercial version of the website and had 2,600 Affiliate marketing partners on the World Wide Web.

Tobin applied for a patent on tracking and Affiliate marketing on January 22, 1996, and was issued U.S.

Patent number 6,141,666 on Oct 31, 2000.

Tobin also received Japanese Patent number 4021941 on Oct 5, 2007, and U.S.

Patent number 7,505,913 on Mar 17, 2009, for Affiliate marketing and tracking.[11] In July 1998 PC Flowers and Gifts merged with Fingerhut and Federated Department Stores.[12] In November 1994, CDNow launched its BuyWeb program.

CDNow had the idea that music-oriented websites could review or list albums on their pages that their visitors might be interested in purchasing.

These websites could also offer a link that would take visitors directly to CDNow to purchase the albums.

The idea for remote purchasing originally arose from conversations with music label Geffen Records in the fall of 1994.

The management at Geffen wanted to sell its artists' CD's directly from its website but did not want to implement this capability itself.

Geffen asked CDNow if it could design a program where CDNow would handle the order fulfillment.

Geffen realized that CDNow could link directly from the artist on its website to Geffen's website, bypassing the CDNow home page and going directly to an artist's music page.[13] Amazon.com (Amazon) launched its associate program in July 1996: Amazon associates could place banner or text links on their site for individual books, or link directly to the Amazon home page.[14] When visitors clicked on the associate's website to go to Amazon and purchase a book, the associate received a commission.

Amazon was not the first merchant to offer an affiliate program, but its program was the first to become widely known and serve as a model for subsequent programs.[15][16] In February 2000, Amazon announced that it had been granted a patent[17] on components of an affiliate program.

The patent application was submitted in June 1997, which predates most affiliate programs, but not PC Flowers & Gifts.com (October 1994), AutoWeb.com (October 1995), Kbkids.com/BrainPlay.com (January 1996), EPage (April 1996), and several others.[18] Affiliate marketing has grown quickly since its inception.

The e-commerce website, viewed as a marketing toy in the early days of the Internet, became an integrated part of the overall business plan and in some cases grew to a bigger business than the existing offline business.

According to one report, the total sales amount generated through affiliate networks in 2006 was £2.16 billion in the United Kingdom alone.

The estimates were £1.35 billion in sales in 2005.[19] MarketingSherpa's research team estimated that, in 2006, affiliates worldwide earned US$6.5 billion in bounty and commissions from a variety of sources in retail, personal finance, gaming and gambling, travel, telecom, education, publishing, and forms of lead generation other than contextual advertising programs.[20] In 2006, the most active sectors for Affiliate marketing were the adult gambling, retail industries and file-sharing services.[21]:149–150 The three sectors expected to experience the greatest growth are the mobile phone, finance, and travel sectors.[21] Soon after these sectors came the entertainment (particularly gaming) and Internet-related services (particularly broadband) sectors.

Also several of the affiliate solution providers expect to see increased interest from business-to-business marketers and advertisers in using Affiliate marketing as part of their mix.[21]:149–150 Websites and services based on Web 2.0 concepts—blogging and interactive online communities, for example—have impacted the Affiliate marketing world as well.

These platforms allow improved communication between merchants and affiliates.

Web 2.0 platforms have also opened Affiliate marketing channels to personal bloggers, writers, and independent website owners.

Contextual ads allow publishers with lower levels of web traffic to place affiliate ads on websites.[citation needed] Forms of new media have also diversified how companies, brands, and ad networks serve ads to visitors.

For instance, YouTube allows video-makers to embed advertisements through Google's affiliate network.[22][23] New developments have made it more difficult for unscrupulous affiliates to make money.

Emerging black sheep are detected and made known to the Affiliate marketing community with much greater speed and efficiency.[citation needed] Eighty percent of affiliate programs today use revenue sharing or pay per sale (PPS) as a compensation method, nineteen percent use cost per action (CPA), and the remaining programs use other methods such as cost per click (CPC) or cost per mille (CPM, cost per estimated 1000 views).[24] Within more mature markets, less than one percent of traditional Affiliate marketing programs today use cost per click and cost per mille.

However, these compensation methods are used heavily in display advertising and paid search.

Cost per mille requires only that the publisher make the advertising available on his or her website and display it to the page visitors in order to receive a commission.

Pay per click requires one additional step in the conversion process to generate revenue for the publisher: A visitor must not only be made aware of the advertisement but must also click on the advertisement to visit the advertiser's website.

Cost per click was more common in the early days of Affiliate marketing but has diminished in use over time due to click fraud issues very similar to the click fraud issues modern search engines are facing today.

Contextual advertising programs are not considered in the statistic pertaining to the diminished use of cost per click, as it is uncertain if contextual advertising can be considered Affiliate marketing.

While these models have diminished in mature e-commerce and online advertising markets they are still prevalent in some more nascent industries.

China is one example where Affiliate marketing does not overtly resemble the same model in the West.

With many affiliates being paid a flat "Cost Per Day" with some networks offering Cost Per Click or CPM.

In the case of cost per mille/click, the publisher is not concerned about whether a visitor is a member of the audience that the advertiser tries to attract and is able to convert because at this point the publisher has already earned his commission.

This leaves the greater, and, in case of cost per mille, the full risk and loss (if the visitor cannot be converted) to the advertiser.

Cost per action/sale methods require that referred visitors do more than visit the advertiser's website before the affiliate receives a commission.

The advertiser must convert that visitor first.

It is in the best interest of the affiliate to send the most closely targeted traffic to the advertiser as possible to increase the chance of a conversion.

The risk and loss are shared between the affiliate and the advertiser.

Affiliate marketing is also called "performance marketing", in reference to how sales employees are typically being compensated.

Such employees are typically paid a commission for each sale they close, and sometimes are paid performance incentives for exceeding objectives.[25] Affiliates are not employed by the advertiser whose products or services they promote, but the compensation models applied to Affiliate marketing are very similar to the ones used for people in the advertisers' internal sales department.

The phrase, "Affiliates are an extended sales force for your business", which is often used to explain Affiliate marketing, is not completely accurate.

The primary difference between the two is that affiliate marketers provide little if any influence on a possible prospect in the conversion process once that prospect is directed to the advertiser's website.

The sales team of the advertiser, however, does have the control and influence up to the point where the prospect either a) signs the contract, or b) completes the purchase.

Some advertisers offer multi-tier programs that distribute commission into a hierarchical referral network of sign-ups and sub-partners.

In practical terms, publisher "A" signs up to the program with an advertiser and gets rewarded for the agreed activity conducted by a referred visitor.

If publisher "A" attracts publishers "B" and "C" to sign up for the same program using his sign-up code, all future activities performed by publishers "B" and "C" will result in additional commission (at a lower rate) for publisher "A".

Two-tier programs exist in the minority of affiliate programs; most are simply one-tier.

Referral programs beyond two-tier resemble multi-level marketing (MLM) or network marketing but are different: Multi-level marketing (MLM) or network marketing associations tend to have more complex commission requirements/qualifications than standard affiliate programs.[citation needed] Merchants favor Affiliate marketing because in most cases it uses a "pay for performance" model, meaning that the merchant does not incur a marketing expense unless results are accrued (excluding any initial setup cost).[26] Some merchants run their own (in-house) affiliate programs using dedicated software, while others use third-party intermediaries to track traffic or sales that are referred from affiliates.

There are two different types of affiliate management methods used by merchants: standalone software or hosted services, typically called affiliate networks.

Payouts to affiliates or publishers can be made by the networks on behalf of the merchant, by the network, consolidated across all merchants where the publisher has a relationship with and earned commissions or directly by the merchant itself.

Uncontrolled affiliate programs aid rogue affiliates, who use spamming,[27] trademark infringement, false advertising, cookie stuffing, typosquatting,[28] and other unethical methods that have given Affiliate marketing a negative reputation.

Some merchants are using outsourced (affiliate) program management (OPM) companies, which are themselves often run by affiliate managers and network program managers.[29] OPM companies perform affiliate program management for the merchants as a service, similar to the role an advertising agencies serves in offline marketing.

Affiliate websites are often categorized by merchants (advertisers) and affiliate networks.

There are currently no industry-wide standards for the categorization.

The following types of websites are generic, yet are commonly understood and used by affiliate marketers.

Affiliate networks that already have several advertisers typically also have a large pool of publishers.

These publishers could be potentially recruited, and there is also an increased chance that publishers in the network apply to the program on their own, without the need for recruitment efforts by the advertiser.

Relevant websites that attract the same target audiences as the advertiser but without competing with it are potential affiliate partners as well.

Vendors or existing customers can also become recruits if doing so makes sense and does not violate any laws or regulations (such as with pyramid schemes).

Almost any website could be recruited as an affiliate publisher, but high traffic websites are more likely interested in (for their sake) low-risk cost per mille or medium-risk cost per click deals rather than higher-risk cost per action or revenue share deals.[30] There are three primary ways to locate affiliate programs for a target website: If the above locations do not yield information pertaining to affiliates, it may be the case that there exists a non-public affiliate program.

Utilizing one of the common website correlation methods may provide clues about the affiliate network.

The most definitive method for finding this information is to contact the website owner directly if a contact method can be located.

Since the emergence of Affiliate marketing, there has been little control over affiliate activity.

Unscrupulous affiliates have used spam, false advertising, forced clicks (to get tracking cookies set on users' computers), adware, and other methods to drive traffic to their sponsors.

Although many affiliate programs have terms of service that contain rules against spam, this marketing method has historically proven to attract abuse from spammers.

In the infancy of Affiliate marketing, many Internet users held negative opinions due to the tendency of affiliates to use spam to promote the programs in which they were enrolled.[31] As Affiliate marketing matured, many affiliate merchants have refined their terms and conditions to prohibit affiliates from spamming.

A browser extension is a plug-in that extends the functionality of a web browser.

Some extensions are authored using web technologies such as HTML, JavaScript, and CSS.

Most modern web browsers have a whole slew of third-party extensions available for download.

In recent years, there has been a constant rise in the number of malicious browser extensions flooding the web.

Malicious browser extensions will often appear to be legitimate as they seem to originate from vendor websites and come with glowing customer reviews.[32] In the case of Affiliate marketing, these malicious extensions are often used to redirect a user's browser to send fake clicks to websites that are supposedly part of legitimate Affiliate marketing programs.

Typically, users are completely unaware this is happening other than their browser performance slowing down.

Websites end up paying for fake traffic numbers, and users are unwitting participants in these ad schemes.

As search engines have become more prominent, some affiliate marketers have shifted from sending e-mail spam to creating automatically generated web pages that often contain product data feeds provided by merchants.

The goal of such web pages is to manipulate the relevancy or prominence of resources indexed by a search engine, also known as spamdexing.

Each page can be targeted to a different niche market through the use of specific keywords, with the result being a skewed form of search engine optimization.

Spam is the biggest threat to organic search engines, whose goal is to provide quality search results for keywords or phrases entered by their users.

Google's PageRank algorithm update ("BigDaddy") in February 2006—the final stage of Google's major update ("Jagger") that began in mid-summer 2005—specifically targeted spamdexing with great success.

This update thus enabled Google to remove a large amount of mostly computer-generated duplicate content from its index.[33] Websites consisting mostly of affiliate links have previously held a negative reputation for underdelivering quality content.

In 2005 there were active changes made by Google, where certain websites were labeled as "thin affiliates".[34] Such websites were either removed from Google's index or were relocated within the results page (i.e., moved from the top-most results to a lower position).

To avoid this categorization, affiliate marketer webmasters must create quality content on their websites that distinguishes their work from the work of spammers or banner farms, which only contain links leading to merchant sites.

Although it differs from spyware, adware often uses the same methods and technologies.

Merchants initially were uninformed about adware, what impact it had, and how it could damage their brands.

Affiliate marketers became aware of the issue much more quickly, especially because they noticed that adware often overwrites tracking cookies, thus resulting in a decline of commissions.

Affiliates not employing adware felt that it was stealing commission from them.

Adware often has no valuable purpose and rarely provides any useful content to the user, who is typically unaware that such software is installed on his/her computer.

Affiliates discussed the issues in Internet forums and began to organize their efforts.

They believed that the best way to address the problem was to discourage merchants from advertising via adware.

Merchants that were either indifferent to or supportive of adware were exposed by affiliates, thus damaging those merchants' reputations and tarnishing their Affiliate marketing efforts.

Many affiliates either terminated the use of such merchants or switched to a competitor's affiliate program.

Eventually, affiliate networks were also forced by merchants and affiliates to take a stand and ban certain adware publishers from their network.

The result was Code of Conduct by Commission Junction/beFree and Performics,[35] LinkShare's Anti-Predatory Advertising Addendum,[36] and ShareASale's complete ban of software applications as a medium for affiliates to promote advertiser offers.[37] Regardless of the progress made, adware continues to be an issue, as demonstrated by the class action lawsuit against ValueClick and its daughter company Commission Junction filed on April 20, 2007.[38] Affiliates were among the earliest adopters of pay per click advertising when the first pay-per-click search engines emerged during the end of the 1990s.

Later in 2000 Google launched its pay per click service, Google AdWords, which is responsible for the widespread use and acceptance of pay per click as an advertising channel.

An increasing number of merchants engaged in pay per click advertising, either directly or via a search marketing agency, and realized that this space was already occupied by their affiliates.

Although this situation alone created advertising channel conflicts and debates between advertisers and affiliates, the largest issue concerned affiliates bidding on advertisers names, brands, and trademarks.[39] Several advertisers began to adjust their affiliate program terms to prohibit their affiliates from bidding on those type of keywords.

Some advertisers, however, did and still do embrace this behavior, going so far as to allow, or even encourage, affiliates to bid on any term, including the advertiser's trademarks.

Bloggers and other publishers may not be aware of disclosure guidelines set forth by the FTC.

Guidelines affect celebrity endorsements, advertising language, and blogger compensation.[40] Affiliate marketing currently lacks industry standards for training and certification.

There are some training courses and seminars that result in certifications; however, the acceptance of such certifications is mostly due to the reputation of the individual or company issuing the certification.

Affiliate marketing is not commonly taught in universities, and only a few college instructors work with Internet marketers to introduce the subject to students majoring in marketing.[41] Education occurs most often in "real life" by becoming involved and learning the details as time progresses.

Although there are several books on the topic, some so-called "how-to" or "silver bullet" books instruct readers to manipulate holes in the Google algorithm, which can quickly become out of date,[41] or suggest strategies no longer endorsed or permitted by advertisers.[42] Outsourced Program Management companies typically combine formal and informal training, providing much of their training through group collaboration and brainstorming.

Such companies also try to send each marketing employee to the industry conference of their choice.[43] Other training resources used include online forums, weblogs, podcasts, video seminars, and specialty websites.

A code of conduct was released by affiliate networks Commission Junction/beFree and Performics in December 2002 to guide practices and adherence to ethical standards for online advertising.

In 2008 the state of New York passed a law asserting sales tax jurisdiction over Amazon.com sales to New York residents.

New York was aware of Amazon affiliates operating within the state.

In Quill Corp.

v.

North Dakota, the US Supreme Court ruled that the presence of independent sales representatives may allow a state to require sales tax collections.

New York determined that affiliates are such independent sales representatives.

The New York law became known as "Amazon's law" and was quickly emulated by other states.[44] While that was the first time states successfully addressed the internet tax gap, since 2018 states have been free to assert sales tax jurisdiction over sales to their residents regardless of the presence of retailer affiliates.[45] Many voucher code web sites use a click-to-reveal format, which requires the web site user to click to reveal the voucher code.

The action of clicking places the cookie on the website visitor's computer.

In the United Kingdom, the IAB Affiliate Council under chair Matt Bailey announced regulations[46] that stated that "Affiliates must not use a mechanism whereby users are encouraged to click to interact with content where it is unclear or confusing what the outcome will be."

Kingdom (South Korean TV series)

Kingdom (Korean: 킹덤; RR: Kingdeom) is a 2019 South Korean political period horror thriller web television series written by Kim Eun-hee and directed by Kim Seong-hun.[3][4] It is Netflix's first original Korean series,[a] which premiered on January 25, 2019.[5][6][7][8] The series is adapted from the webcomic series The Kingdom of the Gods, which was authored by Kim Eun-hee and drawn by Yang Kyung-il.[1] The series was positively reviewed, and renewed for a second season which was released on March 13, 2020.[9][10][11][12] Set during Korea's Joseon period a few years after the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), the first season depicts the story of Crown Prince Lee Chang (Ju Ji-hoon), who stumbles across a life-threatening political conspiracy while investigating the spread of a mysterious plague.

Barred from seeing his ill father, the King of Joseon, by the powerful Chief State Councilor (Ryu Seung-ryong) and Queen Consort (Kim Hye-jun), Lee Chang takes it upon himself to secretly investigate his father's illness.

Shocked by what he finds, he heads to the Southern province of Gyeongsang with his loyal bodyguard Mu-yeong (Kim Sang-ho) to search for more answers.[13] There he encounters the physician Seo-Bi (Bae Doo-na) and the enigmatic Yeong-Shin (Kim Sung-kyu) who are already struggling to deal with a plague that appears to bring the dead back to life as blood-thirsty monsters.

Together they all face a life or death struggle to not only stop the spread of the plague but to also save the royal dynasty from being overthrown.

The second season continues to depict Lee Chang's struggle to save his people from the spread of the plague and his dynasty from the machinations of the powerful Haewon Cho clan.

As Gyeongsang province is sealed off to trap Lee Chang and prevent the spread of the plague, a series of devastating revelations at the city of Sangju changes the balance of power and the onset of winter changes the behaviour of the undead hordes.

While Lee-Chang rallies his allies to secure their position against the undead, the political intrigue in Hanyang continues to unfold as Queen Consort Cho (Kim Hye-jun) puts a deadly plan into action to secure a male heir that can usurp the Crown Prince.

As tensions between the rival factions rise, with death and betrayal on all sides, it seems there are no lengths to which the Haewon Cho clan will not go in order to secure the throne, and so Lee Chang is forced into a risky plan to storm the capital Hanyang and take a final stand before it's too late.

As calamity looms among the living, only one question remains; can the Prince save his people in time and end the political turmoil in the capital or will the plague mark the end of the Joseon dynasty? On March 5, 2017, Netflix announced that it had given the production a series order for a first season.[19][20] Alongside the series announcement, it was confirmed that Kim Seong-hun would direct the series and that Kim Eun-hee would be credited as the writer.[19] Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of AStory.[19][2] Director Park In-je joined the production and directed the second episode and onward from season two.[21] On January 16, 2018, a crew member of the art team died due to overwork.[22] On March 14, 2019, it was confirmed that in the midst of filming the second season, a staff member in the production team died after a car accident.[23] The series overspent the budget, with each episode costing more than $1.78 million.[11] Even before the release of the first season, Netflix announced that they will be making second season.[24][25][11] Filming for the second season started in February 2019,[26] with Director Park In-je joining the production to direct the second episode and onward from season two.[21] Actor Song Joong-ki was courted for the lead role but declined.[27][28] In September 2017, it was reported that Ju Ji-hoon, Ryu Seung-ryong, and Bae Doo-na were in talks to star in the series.[29] In November 2019, it was reported that Jun Ji-hyun will star in the second season.[30] The first season received critical acclaim from critics and the audience.

The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 93% approval rating with an average rating of 8/10 based on 14 reviews.

The website's critical consensus reads, "An enthralling blend of blood, terror, and political intrigue, Kingdom is a refreshing addition to the zombie landscape."[31] Aloysius Low of CNET praised the cinematography of the first season, stating that "shots cleverly linger on certain scenes to draw out the impressive sets, while adeptly tracking the action during sword fights or zombie attacks."[32] Renaldo Matadeen from CBR mentioned in a positive review of the first season, that "Kingdom makes even bolder sociopolitical statements than The Walking Dead does.

Sure, the AMC series waxes on about class and elitism, but Kingdom wades deep into governance and the divide between the rulers and the suffering populace."[33] Jonathan Christian from The Playlist complimented the series by adding that "this series is risky programming for people who appreciate the unusual, gory, but imaginative, things in life.

Considering the over-saturated state of the market, it is refreshing to see Netflix taking chances."[34] Joel Keller from News AU recommended the first season in their review of the series by stating that "Kingdom dares to show that zombies aren't just a 20th and 21st-century phenomenon, and we applaud that kind of creative storytelling."[35] While reviewing the first season, Kate Sanchez from But Why Tho? declared in a positive review that "Kingdom offers a period drama, a zombie show, and a tense atmosphere that will keep you watching until you're done with this season.

In an over-saturated sub-genre, this show takes common horror tropes and rewrites zombie rules for Joseon Korea in a way that reinvigorates my love of the sub-genre."[36] Michael Pementel from Bloody Disgusting praised the series, stating that "Kingdom is by far one of the most compelling works to come out of the zombie genre" and further adding that "thanks to strong acting, gripping action and drama, gruesome visuals, and an overall powerful narrative, Kingdom is a must watch for horror fans."[37] On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season reported a 100% rating with an average rating of 8.25/10, based on 6 reviews.[38] On December 17, 2018, the official trailer for the series was released.[39] On January 25, 2019, the first season of the series, consisting of six episodes, was released for streaming on Netflix.[40] The second season, also consisting of six episodes, was released on March 13, 2020.[41]

Solutions for cavitation in marine propellers

With the introduction of the marine propeller back in the early 19th century, cavitation during operation has always been a limiting factor on efficiency of ships.

Cavitation in marine propellers develops when the propeller operates at a high speed and reduces efficiency of the propeller.

Ever since the introduction of the propeller, solutions for cavitation have been developed and tested.

As the name suggests, this system uses a set of nozzles to help reduce and prevent the likelihood of cavitation in propellers.

This system was developed by Samsung Shipping which is based in South Korea.

In order to reduce the possibility of cavitation happening in marine propellers, a set of nozzles are placed on the hull of the ship directly in front of the propeller.

These nozzles spray out compressed air over the propeller that creates “a macro bubble”.[1] This bubble completely encompasses the propeller that is in operation.

With the differing characteristics of the seawater outside of the bubble and the air inside, a zone develops that has the ability to reduce the “resonance frequency”.[1] Due to this reduction, cavitation is less likely to occur during operation of a marine propeller.[1] To determine how effective this nozzle system could be, multiple tests were carried out with the nozzles and without them.

In these tests, it was discovered that the resonance frequencies and the likelihood of cavitation could be reduced by up to 75%.[1] Those who conducted these tests also tried two different arrangements of the nozzles to find out which one was more effective.

The first arrangement used only one nozzle, which though it used considerably less power than the other option, it was not nearly as successful.

The multi-nozzle system, on the other hand, gave much better results but required more power to operate.[1] While this nozzle system has major drawbacks particularly in its power requirements, the possibility of cavitation in the operation of marine propellers is reduced considerably.

Thus, to some ship owners and operators, the cost of installing these nozzles and operating them is outweighed by the benefits of increased efficiency in their propellers.[1] The Air-Filled Rubber Membrane uses the same principles as the Nozzle System to reduce cavitation in marine propellers.

Since the Nozzle System requires a large source of energy to operate, the creators sought to create a system that has the same results but is cheaper to operate.

This membrane builds on the lessons learned in designing the Nozzle System and uses a pocket of air to prevent cavitation but does not require nozzles or compressors.[2] While at the same time limiting the cost of operation, this membrane provides just as much protection against cavitation as the nozzles do.[2] The Air-Filled Rubber Membrane is placed directly behind an operating marine propeller in the hull.

As described before, the differing characteristics of the air in the membrane and the seawater around it reduce the resonance frequency, which in turn increases the point at which cavitation is encountered.[2] The membrane is specially designed which, along with the use of rubber, furthers the effect of reducing the frequency.[2] This membrane is cheaper to operate than the Propeller Control System+ and the Nozzle System but is not as effective as the PCS+ in reducing cavitation.[2] This solution focuses on the materials that marine propellers are created from which is a direct factor in cavitation.

While redesigning propellers would only garner an extra one or two percent efficiency in operation, changing the materials a propeller is made from has greater effects.[3] The most common blend that marine propellers are created from is the nickel aluminum bronze blend.

While this blend can resist erosion which is why it is so common, it cannot properly handle cavitation.[3] However, this is beginning to change.

The Royal Netherlands Navy for one is starting to experiment with composite materials like resins or carbon fiber.[3] These materials, when formed into a propeller, are flexible enough under pressure to “deflect,” which can reduce cavitation.[3] Other options are made from carbon fiber, epoxy resin, or even glass, and are able to produce “a hydro elastic effect”.[3] Since these new propellers can flex and are not nearly as rigid under pressure, the risk of cavitation is reduced.[3] While replacing propellers would be the most efficient on ships that are currently under construction, the benefits from newer propeller materials could outweigh costs of replacing current marine propellers.[3] Despite the initial cost of the propellers, this solution costs nothing to operate making it more feasible to shipping around the globe.

Web design

Web design encompasses many different skills and disciplines in the production and maintenance of websites.

The different areas of Web design include web graphic design; interface design; authoring, including standardised code and proprietary software; user experience design; and search engine optimization.

Often many individuals will work in teams covering different aspects of the design process, although some designers will cover them all.[1] The term "Web design" is normally used to describe the design process relating to the front-end (client side) design of a website including writing markup.

Web design partially overlaps web engineering in the broader scope of web development.

Web designers are expected to have an awareness of usability and if their role involves creating markup then they are also expected to be up to date with web accessibility guidelines.

Although Web design has a fairly recent history.

It can be linked to other areas such as graphic design, user experience, and multimedia arts, but is more aptly seen from a technological standpoint.

It has become a large part of people's everyday lives.

It is hard to imagine the Internet without animated graphics, different styles of typography, background, and music.

In 1989, whilst working at CERN Tim Berners-Lee proposed to create a global hypertext project, which later became known as the World Wide Web.

During 1991 to 1993 the World Wide Web was born.

Text-only pages could be viewed using a simple line-mode browser.[2] In 1993 Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina, created the Mosaic browser.

At the time there were multiple browsers, however the majority of them were Unix-based and naturally text heavy.

There had been no integrated approach to graphic design elements such as images or sounds.

The Mosaic browser broke this mould.[3] The W3C was created in October 1994 to "lead the World Wide Web to its full potential by developing common protocols that promote its evolution and ensure its interoperability."[4] This discouraged any one company from monopolizing a propriety browser and programming language, which could have altered the effect of the World Wide Web as a whole.

The W3C continues to set standards, which can today be seen with JavaScript and other languages.

In 1994 Andreessen formed Mosaic Communications Corp.

that later became known as Netscape Communications, the Netscape 0.9 browser.

Netscape created its own HTML tags without regard to the traditional standards process.

For example, Netscape 1.1 included tags for changing background colours and formatting text with tables on web pages.

Throughout 1996 to 1999 the browser wars began, as Microsoft and Netscape fought for ultimate browser dominance.

During this time there were many new technologies in the field, notably Cascading Style Sheets, JavaScript, and Dynamic HTML.

On the whole, the browser competition did lead to many positive creations and helped Web design evolve at a rapid pace.[5] In 1996, Microsoft released its first competitive browser, which was complete with its own features and HTML tags.

It was also the first browser to support style sheets, which at the time was seen as an obscure authoring technique and is today an important aspect of Web design.[5] The HTML markup for tables was originally intended for displaying tabular data.

However designers quickly realized the potential of using HTML tables for creating the complex, multi-column layouts that were otherwise not possible.

At this time, as design and good aesthetics seemed to take precedence over good mark-up structure, and little attention was paid to semantics and web accessibility.

HTML sites were limited in their design options, even more so with earlier versions of HTML.

To create complex designs, many Web designers had to use complicated table structures or even use blank spacer .GIF images to stop empty table cells from collapsing.[6] CSS was introduced in December 1996 by the W3C to support presentation and layout.

This allowed HTML code to be semantic rather than both semantic and presentational, and improved web accessibility, see tableless Web design.

In 1996, Flash (originally known as FutureSplash) was developed.

At the time, the Flash content development tool was relatively simple compared to now, using basic layout and drawing tools, a limited precursor to ActionScript, and a timeline, but it enabled Web designers to go beyond the point of HTML, animated GIFs and JavaScript.

However, because Flash required a plug-in, many web developers avoided using it for fear of limiting their market share due to lack of compatibility.

Instead, designers reverted to gif animations (if they didn't forego using motion graphics altogether) and JavaScript for widgets.

But the benefits of Flash made it popular enough among specific target markets to eventually work its way to the vast majority of browsers, and powerful enough to be used to develop entire sites.[6] During 1998 Netscape released Netscape Communicator code under an open source licence, enabling thousands of developers to participate in improving the software.

However, they decided to start from the beginning, which guided the development of the open source browser and soon expanded to a complete application platform.[5] The Web Standards Project was formed and promoted browser compliance with HTML and CSS standards by creating Acid1, Acid2, and Acid3 tests.

2000 was a big year for Microsoft.

Internet Explorer was released for Mac; this was significant as it was the first browser that fully supported HTML 4.01 and CSS 1, raising the bar in terms of standards compliance.

It was also the first browser to fully support the PNG image format.[5] During this time Netscape was sold to AOL and this was seen as Netscape's official loss to Microsoft in the browser wars.[5] Since the start of the 21st century the web has become more and more integrated into peoples lives.

As this has happened the technology of the web has also moved on.

There have also been significant changes in the way people use and access the web, and this has changed how sites are designed.

Since the end of the browsers wars[when?] new browsers have been released.

Many of these are open source meaning that they tend to have faster development and are more supportive of new standards.

The new options are considered by many[weasel words] to be better than Microsoft's Internet Explorer.

The W3C has released new standards for HTML (HTML5) and CSS (CSS3), as well as new JavaScript API's, each as a new but individual standard.[when?] While the term HTML5 is only used to refer to the new version of HTML and some of the JavaScript API's, it has become common to use it to refer to the entire suite of new standards (HTML5, CSS3 and JavaScript).

Web designers use a variety of different tools depending on what part of the production process they are involved in.

These tools are updated over time by newer standards and software but the principles behind them remain the same.

Web designers use both vector and raster graphics editors to create web-formatted imagery or design prototypes.

Technologies used to create websites include W3C standards like HTML and CSS, which can be hand-coded or generated by WYSIWYG editing software.

Other tools Web designers might use include mark up validators[7] and other testing tools for usability and accessibility to ensure their websites meet web accessibility guidelines.[8] Marketing and communication design on a website may identify what works for its target market.

This can be an age group or particular strand of culture; thus the designer may understand the trends of its audience.

Designers may also understand the type of website they are designing, meaning, for example, that (B2B) business-to-business website design considerations might differ greatly from a consumer targeted website such as a retail or entertainment website.

Careful consideration might be made to ensure that the aesthetics or overall design of a site do not clash with the clarity and accuracy of the content or the ease of web navigation,[9] especially on a B2B website.

Designers may also consider the reputation of the owner or business the site is representing to make sure they are portrayed favourably.

User understanding of the content of a website often depends on user understanding of how the website works.

This is part of the user experience design.

User experience is related to layout, clear instructions and labeling on a website.

How well a user understands how they can interact on a site may also depend on the interactive design of the site.

If a user perceives the usefulness of the website, they are more likely to continue using it.

Users who are skilled and well versed with website use may find a more distinctive, yet less intuitive or less user-friendly website interface useful nonetheless.

However, users with less experience are less likely to see the advantages or usefulness of a less intuitive website interface.

This drives the trend for a more universal user experience and ease of access to accommodate as many users as possible regardless of user skill.[10] Much of the user experience design and interactive design are considered in the user interface design.

Advanced interactive functions may require plug-ins if not advanced coding language skills.

Choosing whether or not to use interactivity that requires plug-ins is a critical decision in user experience design.

If the plug-in doesn't come pre-installed with most browsers, there's a risk that the user will have neither the know how or the patience to install a plug-in just to access the content.

If the function requires advanced coding language skills, it may be too costly in either time or money to code compared to the amount of enhancement the function will add to the user experience.

There's also a risk that advanced interactivity may be incompatible with older browsers or hardware configurations.

Publishing a function that doesn't work reliably is potentially worse for the user experience than making no attempt.

It depends on the target audience if it's likely to be needed or worth any risks.

Part of the user interface design is affected by the quality of the page layout.

For example, a designer may consider whether the site's page layout should remain consistent on different pages when designing the layout.

Page pixel width may also be considered vital for aligning objects in the layout design.

The most popular fixed-width websites generally have the same set width to match the current most popular browser window, at the current most popular screen resolution, on the current most popular monitor size.

Most pages are also center-aligned for concerns of aesthetics on larger screens.

Fluid layouts increased in popularity around 2000 as an alternative to HTML-table-based layouts and grid-based design in both page layout design principle and in coding technique, but were very slow to be adopted.[note 1] This was due to considerations of screen reading devices and varying windows sizes which designers have no control over.

Accordingly, a design may be broken down into units (sidebars, content blocks, embedded advertising areas, navigation areas) that are sent to the browser and which will be fitted into the display window by the browser, as best it can.

As the browser does recognize the details of the reader's screen (window size, font size relative to window etc.) the browser can make user-specific layout adjustments to fluid layouts, but not fixed-width layouts.

Although such a display may often change the relative position of major content units, sidebars may be displaced below body text rather than to the side of it.

This is a more flexible display than a hard-coded grid-based layout that doesn't fit the device window.

In particular, the relative position of content blocks may change while leaving the content within the block unaffected.

This also minimizes the user's need to horizontally scroll the page.

Responsive Web design is a newer approach, based on CSS3, and a deeper level of per-device specification within the page's style sheet through an enhanced use of the CSS @media rule.

In March 2018 Google announced they would be rolling out mobile-first indexing.[11]Sites using responsive design are well placed to ensure they meet this new approach.

Web designers may choose to limit the variety of website typefaces to only a few which are of a similar style, instead of using a wide range of typefaces or type styles.

Most browsers recognize a specific number of safe fonts, which designers mainly use in order to avoid complications.

Font downloading was later included in the CSS3 fonts module and has since been implemented in Safari 3.1, Opera 10 and Mozilla Firefox 3.5.

This has subsequently increased interest in web typography, as well as the usage of font downloading.

Most site layouts incorporate negative space to break the text up into paragraphs and also avoid center-aligned text.[12] The page layout and user interface may also be affected by the use of motion graphics.

The choice of whether or not to use motion graphics may depend on the target market for the website.

Motion graphics may be expected or at least better received with an entertainment-oriented website.

However, a website target audience with a more serious or formal interest (such as business, community, or government) might find animations unnecessary and distracting if only for entertainment or decoration purposes.

This doesn't mean that more serious content couldn't be enhanced with animated or video presentations that is relevant to the content.

In either case, motion graphic design may make the difference between more effective visuals or distracting visuals.

Motion graphics that are not initiated by the site visitor can produce accessibility issues.

The World Wide Web consortium accessibility standards require that site visitors be able to disable the animations.[13] Website designers may consider it to be good practice to conform to standards.

This is usually done via a description specifying what the element is doing.

Failure to conform to standards may not make a website unusable or error prone, but standards can relate to the correct layout of pages for readability as well making sure coded elements are closed appropriately.

This includes errors in code, more organized layout for code, and making sure IDs and classes are identified properly.

Poorly-coded pages are sometimes colloquially called tag soup.

Validating via W3C[7] can only be done when a correct DOCTYPE declaration is made, which is used to highlight errors in code.

The system identifies the errors and areas that do not conform to Web design standards.

This information can then be corrected by the user.[14] There are two ways websites are generated: statically or dynamically.

A static website stores a unique file for every page of a static website.

Each time that page is requested, the same content is returned.

This content is created once, during the design of the website.

It is usually manually authored, although some sites use an automated creation process, similar to a dynamic website, whose results are stored long-term as completed pages.

These automatically-created static sites became more popular around 2015, with generators such as Jekyll and Adobe Muse.[15] The benefits of a static website are that they were simpler to host, as their server only needed to serve static content, not execute server-side scripts.

This required less server administration and had less chance of exposing security holes.

They could also serve pages more quickly, on low-cost server hardware.

These advantage became less important as cheap web hosting expanded to also offer dynamic features, and virtual servers offered high performance for short intervals at low cost.

Almost all websites have some static content, as supporting assets such as images and style sheets are usually static, even on a website with highly dynamic pages.

Dynamic websites are generated on the fly and use server-side technology to generate webpages.

They typically extract their content from one or more back-end databases: some are database queries across a relational database to query a catalogue or to summarise numeric information, others may use a document database such as MongoDB or NoSQL to store larger units of content, such as blog posts or wiki articles.

In the design process, dynamic pages are often mocked-up or wireframed using static pages.

The skillset needed to develop dynamic web pages is much broader than for a static pages, involving server-side and database coding as well as client-side interface design.

Even medium-sized dynamic projects are thus almost always a team effort.

When dynamic web pages first developed, they were typically coded directly in languages such as Perl, PHP or ASP.

Some of these, notably PHP and ASP, used a 'template' approach where a server-side page resembled the structure of the completed client-side page and data was inserted into places defined by 'tags'.

This was a quicker means of development than coding in a purely procedural coding language such as Perl.

Both of these approaches have now been supplanted for many websites by higher-level application-focused tools such as content management systems.

These build on top of general purpose coding platforms and assume that a website exists to offer content according to one of several well recognised models, such as a time-sequenced blog, a thematic magazine or news site, a wiki or a user forum.

These tools make the implementation of such a site very easy, and a purely organisational and design-based task, without requiring any coding.

Editing the content itself (as well as the template page) can be done both by means of the site itself, and with the use of third-party software.

The ability to edit all pages is provided only to a specific category of users (for example, administrators, or registered users).

In some cases, anonymous users are allowed to edit certain web content, which is less frequent (for example, on forums - adding messages).

An example of a site with an anonymous change is Wikipedia.

Usability experts, including Jakob Nielsen and Kyle Soucy, have often emphasised homepage design for website success and asserted that the homepage is the most important page on a website.[16][17][18][19] However practitioners into the 2000s were starting to find that a growing number of website traffic was bypassing the homepage, going directly to internal content pages through search engines, e-newsletters and RSS feeds.[20] Leading many practitioners to argue that homepages are less important than most people think.[21][22][23][24] Jared Spool argued in 2007 that a site's homepage was actually the least important page on a website.[25] In 2012 and 2013, carousels (also called 'sliders' and 'rotating banners') have become an extremely popular design element on homepages, often used to showcase featured or recent content in a confined space.[26][27] Many practitioners argue that carousels are an ineffective design element and hurt a website's search engine optimisation and usability.[27][28][29] There are two primary jobs involved in creating a website: the Web designer and web developer, who often work closely together on a website.[30] The Web designers are responsible for the visual aspect, which includes the layout, coloring and typography of a web page.

Web designers will also have a working knowledge of markup languages such as HTML and CSS, although the extent of their knowledge will differ from one Web designer to another.

Particularly in smaller organizations, one person will need the necessary skills for designing and programming the full web page, while larger organizations may have a Web designer responsible for the visual aspect alone.[31] Further jobs which may become involved in the creation of a website include:

Ketorolac

Ketorolac, sold under the brand name Toradol among others, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to treat pain.[1] Specifically it is recommended for moderate to severe pain.[2] Recommended duration of treatment is less than six days.[1] It is used by mouth, by nose, by injection into a vein or muscle, and as eye drops.[1][2] Effects begin within an hour and last for up to eight hours.[1] Common side effects include sleepiness, dizziness, abdominal pain, swelling, and nausea.[1] Serious side effects may include stomach bleeding, kidney failure, heart attacks, bronchospasm, heart failure, and anaphylaxis.[1] Use is not recommended during the last part of pregnancy or during breastfeeding.[1] Ketorolac works by blocking cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX1 and COX2), thereby decreasing production of prostaglandins.[1][3] Ketorolac was patented in 1976 and approved for medical use in 1989.[4][1] It is available as a generic medication.[2] In the United Kingdom it costs the NHS less than £1 per injectable dose as of 2019.[2] In the United States the wholesale cost of this amount is about US$1.50.[5] In 2017, it was the 271st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than one million prescriptions.[6][7] Ketorolac is used for short-term management of moderate to severe pain.[8] It is usually not prescribed for longer than five days,[9][10][11][12] due to its potential to cause kidney damage.[13] Ketorolac is effective when administered with paracetamol to control pain in newborns because it does not depress respiration as do opioids.[14] Ketorolac is also an adjuvant to opioid medications and improves pain relief.

It is also used to treat dysmenorrhea.[12] Ketorolac is used to treat idiopathic pericarditis, where it reduces inflammation.[15] For systemic use, Ketorolac can be administered orally, under the tongue, by intramuscular injection, intravenously, and by nasal spray.[9] Usually, it is initially administered by intramuscular injection or intravenously,[8] with oral therapy used as a continuation after the initial IM or IV dose.[9][14] Ketorolac is also used as an eye drop.

It can be given during eye surgery to help with pain,[16] and is effective in treating ocular itching.[17] The eye drops are associated with decreased development of macular edema after cataract surgery, and is more effective alone than as an opioid/Ketorolac combination treatment.[18][19] Ketorolac eye drops have also been used to manage pain from corneal abrasions.[20] During treatment with Ketorolac, clinicians monitor for the manifestation of adverse effects.

Lab tests, such as liver function tests, bleeding time, BUN, serum creatinine and electrolyte levels are often used and help to identify potential complications.[9][10] Ketorolac is contraindicated in those with hypersensitivity, allergies to the medication, cross-sensitivity to other NSAIDs, prior to surgery, history of peptic ulcer disease, gastrointestinal bleeding, alcohol intolerance, renal impairment, cerebrovascular bleeding, nasal polyps, angioedema, and asthma.[9][10] Recommendations exist for cautious use of Ketorolac in those who have experienced cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, coagulation disorders, renal impairment, and hepatic impairment.[9][10] A common (>10%) side effect is drowsiness.

Infrequent (<1%) side effects include paresthesia, prolonged bleeding time, injection site pain, purpura, sweating, abnormal thinking, increased production of tears, edema, pallor, dry mouth, abnormal taste, urinary frequency, increased liver enzymes, itching and others.

Platelet function can be decreased by use of Ketorolac.[21] Though uncommon, potentially fatal adverse effects include stroke, myocardial infarction, GI bleeding, Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis and anaphylaxis.

In terms of safety, Ketorolac has been assessed to be a relatively higher-risk NSAID when compared to aceclofenac, celecoxib, and ibuprofen.[15] Like all NSAIDs, Ketorolac can cause premature constriction of the ductus arteriosus in the infant if taken by the mother during the third trimester of pregnancy.[9][10] Ketorolac can interact with other medications.

Probenecid can increase the probability of having an adverse reaction when taken with Ketorolac.

Pentoxifylline can increase the risk of bleeding.

When aspirin is taken at the same time as Ketorolac, the effectiveness is decreased.

Problematic GI effects are additive and become more likely if potassium supplements, aspirin, other NSAIDs, corticosteroids, or alcohol is taken at the same time.

The effectiveness of antihypertensives and diuretics can be lowered.

The use of Ketorolac can increase serum lithium levels to the point of toxicity.

Toxicity to methotrexate is more likely if Ketorolac is taken at the same time.

The risk of bleeding increases with the concurrent medications clopidogrel, cefoperazone, valproic acid, cefotetan, eptifibatide, tirofiban, and ticlopidine.

Anticoagulants and thrombolytic medications also increase the likelihood of bleeding.

Medications used to treat cancer can interact with Ketorolac along with radiation therapy.

The risk of toxicity to the kidneys increases when Ketorolac is taken with cyclosporine.[9][10] Interactions with Ketorolac also exist with some herbal supplements.

The use of Panax ginseng, clove, ginger, arnica, feverfew, dong quai, chamomile, and Ginkgo biloba increases the risk of bleeding.[9][10] Chemically Ketorolac functions as a carboxylic acid derivative serving non-selectively to block the prostaglandin synthesis by inhibition of prostaglandin G/H synthesis one and two.

Prostaglandin functions in the body as a messenger for contraction/relaxation of smooth muscle and modulation of inflammation.

Resultant, inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis prevents inflammation.[22] The primary mechanism of action responsible for Ketorolac's anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic effects is the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis by competitive blocking of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX).

Ketorolac is a non-selective COX inhibitor.[23] It is considered a first-generation NSAID.[21] In the US, Ketorolac is the only widely available intravenous NSAID.

An IV form of paracetemol, which is not an NSAID, became available in Europe in 2009 and then in the US.[14] The Syntex company, of Palo Alto, California developed the ophthalmic solution Acular around 2006.[citation needed] In 2007, there were concerns about the high incidence of reported side effects.

This led to restriction in its dosage and maximum duration of use.

In the UK, treatment was initiated only in a hospital, although this was not designed to exclude its use in prehospital care and mountain rescue settings.[8] Dosing guidelines were published at that time.[24] Concerns over the high incidence of reported side effects with Ketorolac trometamol led to its withdrawal (apart from the ophthalmic formulation) in several countries, while in others its permitted dosage and maximum duration of treatment have been reduced.

From 1990 to 1993, 97 reactions with a fatal outcome were reported worldwide.[25] The eye-drop formulation was approved by the FDA in 1992.[26] An intranasal formulation (Sprix) was approved by the FDA in 2010[27] for short-term management of moderate to moderately severe pain requiring analgesia at the opioid level.

Ketorolac has also been used in collegiate and professional sports.

Competitive sports athletes, particularly in contact sports, are often required to play through injuries.[28] In the late 1900's opioids and their associated pharmaceutical companies came under fire.[29] Then sporting leagues began to push back against team physicians giving them to players attempting to play through injuries as it was clear that numbing the pain during practice/competition only furthered injuries.[30] Resultantly teams moved to using Ketorolac as the drug is certainly powerful enough to numb players pain, but Ketorolac is not a commonly abused drug with a bad reputation.

Furthermore, Ketorolac is a NSAID which are generally considered safe by those without a background in pharmacology as they are associated with more mild drugs such as aspirin/ibuprofen.[31] Only recently has this issue been addressed, with researchers speaking out and making recommendations[32] and a lawsuit against the National Football League in 2017.[33]

Country Home (magazine)

Country Home was a country lifestyle magazine, published by Meredith Corporation.

The magazine featured decorating and collecting, food and entertaining, fashion and well-being, travel and shopping.[1] Country Home provided ideas and inspiration for readers who live a country lifestyle, or aspire to create one, in city lofts, farmhouses, suburban colonials, getaway cottages or wherever else.

Country Home, which was launched in 1984, was published 10 times a year[1] and each issue had over 8.3 million readers.[2] LuAnn Brandsen and Carol Sheehan served as the editors-in-chief of the magazine.[1] On January 8, 2009, Meredith Corporation announced that the magazine would cease publication effective with the March 2009 issue.[2] The company cited a poor advertising climate and noted that the closing was part of larger set of cost-cutting actions at the company.

Chiropractic

Chiropractic is a pseudoscientific[1] complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)[2] that is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially the spine.[3] Chiropractors, especially those in the field's early history, have proposed that such disorders affect general health via the nervous system.[3] The main Chiropractic treatment technique involves manual therapy, especially manipulation of the spine, other joints, and soft tissues, but may also include exercises and health and lifestyle counseling.[4] Chiropractors are not physicians or medical doctors.[5][6] Systematic reviews of controlled clinical studies of treatments used by chiropractors have not found evidence that Chiropractic manipulation is effective, with the possible exception of treatment for back pain.[7] A critical evaluation found that collectively, spinal manipulation was ineffective at treating any condition.[8] Spinal manipulation may be cost-effective for sub-acute or chronic low back pain but the results for acute low back pain were insufficient.[9] The efficacy and cost-effectiveness of maintenance Chiropractic care are unknown.[10] There is not sufficient data to establish the safety of Chiropractic manipulations.[11] It is frequently associated with mild to moderate adverse effects, with serious or fatal complications in rare cases.[12] There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of vertebral artery dissection, which can lead to stroke and death, from cervical manipulation.[13] Several deaths have been associated with this technique[12] and it has been suggested that the relationship is causative,[14][15] a claim which is disputed by many chiropractors.[15] Chiropractic is well established in the United States, Canada, and Australia.[16] It overlaps with other manual-therapy professions such as osteopathy and physical therapy.[17] Most who seek Chiropractic care do so for low back pain.[18] Back and neck pain are considered the specialties of Chiropractic, but many chiropractors treat ailments other than musculoskeletal issues.[7] Many chiropractors describe themselves as primary care providers,[7][19] but the Chiropractic clinical training does not support the requirements to be considered primary care providers.[3] Chiropractic has two main groups: "straights", now the minority, emphasize vitalism, "innate intelligence", and consider vertebral subluxations to be the cause of all disease; "mixers", the majority, are more open to mainstream views and conventional medical techniques, such as exercise, massage, and ice therapy.[20] D.

D.

Palmer founded Chiropractic in the 1890s,[21] after saying he received it from "the other world";[22] Palmer maintained that the tenets of Chiropractic were passed along to him by a doctor who had died 50 years previously.[23] His son B.

J.

Palmer helped to expand Chiropractic in the early 20th century.[21] Throughout its history, Chiropractic has been controversial.[24][25] Its foundation is at odds with mainstream medicine, and has been sustained by pseudoscientific ideas such as subluxation and innate intelligence.[26] Despite the overwhelming evidence that vaccination is an effective public health intervention, among chiropractors there are significant disagreements over the subject,[27] which has led to negative impacts on both public vaccination and mainstream acceptance of Chiropractic.[28] The American Medical Association called Chiropractic an "unscientific cult" in 1966[29] and boycotted it until losing an antitrust case in 1987.[19] Chiropractic has had a strong political base and sustained demand for services; in recent decades, it has gained more legitimacy and greater acceptance among conventional physicians and health plans in the United States.[19] Chiropractic is generally categorized as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM),[2] which focuses on manipulation of the musculoskeletal system, especially the spine.[3] Its founder, D.D.

Palmer, called it "a science of healing without drugs".[7] Chiropractic's origins lie in the folk medicine of bonesetting,[7] and as it evolved it incorporated vitalism, spiritual inspiration and rationalism.[30] Its early philosophy was based on deduction from irrefutable doctrine, which helped distinguish Chiropractic from medicine, provided it with legal and political defenses against claims of practicing medicine without a license, and allowed chiropractors to establish themselves as an autonomous profession.[30] This "straight" philosophy, taught to generations of chiropractors, rejects the inferential reasoning of the scientific method,[30] and relies on deductions from vitalistic first principles rather than on the materialism of science.[31] However, most practitioners tend to incorporate scientific research into Chiropractic,[30] and most practitioners are "mixers" who attempt to combine the materialistic reductionism of science with the metaphysics of their predecessors and with the holistic paradigm of wellness.[31] A 2008 commentary proposed that Chiropractic actively divorce itself from the straight philosophy as part of a campaign to eliminate untestable dogma and engage in critical thinking and evidence-based research.[32] ↓ Restoration of structural integrity ↓ Improvement of health status ↓ Innate intelligence ↓ Body physiology Although a wide diversity of ideas exist among chiropractors,[30] they share the belief that the spine and health are related in a fundamental way, and that this relationship is mediated through the nervous system.[33] Some chiropractors claim spinal manipulation can have an effect on a variety of ailments such as irritable bowel syndrome and asthma.[34] Chiropractic philosophy includes the following perspectives:[31] Holism assumes that health is affected by everything in an individual's environment; some sources also include a spiritual or existential dimension.[35] In contrast, reductionism in Chiropractic reduces causes and cures of health problems to a single factor, vertebral subluxation.[32] Homeostasis emphasizes the body's inherent self-healing abilities.

Chiropractic's early notion of innate intelligence can be thought of as a metaphor for homeostasis.[30] A large number of chiropractors fear that if they do not separate themselves from the traditional vitalistic concept of innate intelligence, Chiropractic will continue to be seen as a fringe profession.[20] A variant of Chiropractic called naprapathy originated in Chicago in the early twentieth century.[36][37] It holds that manual manipulation of soft tissue can reduce "interference" in the body and thus improve health.[37] Straight chiropractors adhere to the philosophical principles set forth by D.D.

and B.J.

Palmer, and retain metaphysical definitions and vitalistic qualities.[38] Straight chiropractors believe that vertebral subluxation leads to interference with an "innate intelligence" exerted via the human nervous system and is a primary underlying risk factor for many diseases.[38] Straights view the medical diagnosis of patient complaints, which they consider to be the "secondary effects" of subluxations, to be unnecessary for Chiropractic treatment.[38] Thus, straight chiropractors are concerned primarily with the detection and correction of vertebral subluxation via adjustment and do not "mix" other types of therapies into their practice style.[38] Their philosophy and explanations are metaphysical in nature and they prefer to use traditional Chiropractic lexicon terminology such as "perform spinal analysis", "detect subluxation", "correct with adjustment".[20] They prefer to remain separate and distinct from mainstream health care.[20] Although considered the minority group, "they have been able to transform their status as purists and heirs of the lineage into influence dramatically out of proportion to their numbers."[20] Mixer chiropractors "mix" diagnostic and treatment approaches from Chiropractic, medical or osteopathic viewpoints and make up the majority of chiropractors.[20] Unlike straight chiropractors, mixers believe subluxation is one of many causes of disease, and hence they tend to be open to mainstream medicine.[20] Many of them incorporate mainstream medical diagnostics and employ conventional treatments including techniques of physical therapy such as exercise, stretching, massage, ice packs, electrical muscle stimulation, therapeutic ultrasound, and moist heat.[20] Some mixers also use techniques from alternative medicine, including nutritional supplements, acupuncture, homeopathy, herbal remedies, and biofeedback.[20] Although mixers are the majority group, many of them retain belief in vertebral subluxation as shown in a 2003 survey of 1,100 North American chiropractors, which found that 88 percent wanted to retain the term "vertebral subluxation complex", and that when asked to estimate the percent of disorders of internal organs that subluxation significantly contributes to, the mean response was 62 percent.[39] A 2008 survey of 6,000 American chiropractors demonstrated that most chiropractors seem to believe that a subluxation-based clinical approach may be of limited utility for addressing visceral disorders, and greatly favored non-subluxation-based clinical approaches for such conditions.[40] The same survey showed that most chiropractors generally believed that the majority of their clinical approach for addressing musculoskeletal/biomechanical disorders such as back pain was based on subluxation.[40] Chiropractors often offer conventional therapies such as physical therapy and lifestyle counseling, and it may for the lay person be difficult to distinguish the unscientific from the scientific.[41] Palmer hypothesized that vertebral joint misalignments, which he termed vertebral subluxations, interfered with the body's function and its inborn ability to heal itself.[42] D.

D.

Palmer repudiated his earlier theory that vertebral subluxations caused pinched nerves in the intervertebral spaces in favor of subluxations causing altered nerve vibration, either too tense or too slack, affecting the tone (health) of the end organ.[43] D.

D.

Palmer, using a vitalistic approach, imbued the term subluxation with a metaphysical and philosophical meaning.[43] He qualified this by noting that knowledge of innate intelligence was not essential to the competent practice of Chiropractic.[43] This concept was later expanded upon by his son, B.

J.

Palmer, and was instrumental in providing the legal basis of differentiating Chiropractic from conventional medicine.

In 1910, D.

D.

Palmer theorized that the nervous system controlled health: Vertebral subluxation, a core concept of traditional Chiropractic, remains unsubstantiated and largely untested, and a debate about whether to keep it in the Chiropractic paradigm has been ongoing for decades.[45] In general, critics of traditional subluxation-based Chiropractic (including chiropractors) are skeptical of its clinical value, dogmatic beliefs and metaphysical approach.

While straight Chiropractic still retains the traditional vitalistic construct espoused by the founders, evidence-based Chiropractic suggests that a mechanistic view will allow Chiropractic care to become integrated into the wider health care community.[45] This is still a continuing source of debate within the Chiropractic profession as well, with some schools of Chiropractic still teaching the traditional/straight subluxation-based Chiropractic, while others have moved towards an evidence-based Chiropractic that rejects metaphysical foundings and limits itself to primarily neuromusculoskeletal conditions.[46][47] In 2005, the Chiropractic subluxation was defined by the World Health Organization as "a lesion or dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact.[48] It is essentially a functional entity, which may influence biomechanical and neural integrity."[48] This differs from the medical definition of subluxation as a significant structural displacement, which can be seen with static imaging techniques such as X-rays.[48] This exposes patients to harmful ionizing radiation for no evidentially supported reason.[49][50] The 2008 book Trick or Treatment states "X-rays can reveal neither the subluxations nor the innate intelligence associated with Chiropractic philosophy, because they do not exist."[51] Attorney David Chapman-Smith, Secretary-General of the World Federation of Chiropractic, has stated that "Medical critics have asked how there can be a subluxation if it cannot be seen on X-ray.

The answer is that the Chiropractic subluxation is essentially a functional entity, not structural, and is therefore no more visible on static X-ray than a limp or headache or any other functional problem."[52] The General Chiropractic Council, the statutory regulatory body for chiropractors in the United Kingdom, states that the Chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex "is not supported by any clinical research evidence that would allow claims to be made that it is the cause of disease."[53] As of 2014, the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners states "The specific focus of Chiropractic practice is known as the Chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction.

A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness."[54][26] Chiropractors emphasize the conservative management of the neuromusculoskeletal system without the use of medicines or surgery,[48] with special emphasis on the spine.[3] Back and neck pain are the specialties of Chiropractic but many chiropractors treat ailments other than musculoskeletal issues.[7] There is a range of opinions among chiropractors: some believed that treatment should be confined to the spine, or back and neck pain; others disagreed.[55] For example, while one 2009 survey of American chiropractors had found that 73% classified themselves as "back pain/musculoskeletal specialists", the label "back and neck pain specialists" was regarded by 47% of them as a least desirable description in a 2005 international survey.[55] Chiropractic combines aspects from mainstream and alternative medicine, and there is no agreement about how to define the profession: although chiropractors have many attributes of primary care providers, Chiropractic has more attributes of a medical specialty like dentistry or podiatry.[56] It has been proposed that chiropractors specialize in nonsurgical spine care, instead of attempting to also treat other problems,[32][56] but the more expansive view of Chiropractic is still widespread.[57] Mainstream health care and governmental organizations such as the World Health Organization consider Chiropractic to be complementary and alternative medicine (CAM);[2] and a 2008 study reported that 31% of surveyed chiropractors categorized Chiropractic as CAM, 27% as integrated medicine, and 12% as mainstream medicine.[58] Many chiropractors believe they are primary care providers,[7][19] including US[59] and UK chiropractors,[60] but the length, breadth, and depth of Chiropractic clinical training do not support the requirements to be considered primary care providers,[3] so their role on primary care is limited and disputed.[3][19] Chiropractic overlaps with several other forms of manual therapy, including massage therapy, osteopathy, physical therapy, and sports medicine.[17][61] Chiropractic is autonomous from and competitive with mainstream medicine,[62] and osteopathy outside the US remains primarily a manual medical system;[63] physical therapists work alongside and cooperate with mainstream medicine, and osteopathic medicine in the U.S.

has merged with the medical profession.[62] Practitioners may distinguish these competing approaches through claims that, compared to other therapists, chiropractors heavily emphasize spinal manipulation, tend to use firmer manipulative techniques, and promote maintenance care; that osteopaths use a wider variety of treatment procedures; and that physical therapists emphasize machinery and exercise.[17] Chiropractic diagnosis may involve a range of methods including skeletal imaging, observational and tactile assessments, and orthopedic and neurological evaluation.[48] A chiropractor may also refer a patient to an appropriate specialist, or co-manage with another health care provider.[56] Common patient management involves spinal manipulation (SM) and other manual therapies to the joints and soft tissues, rehabilitative exercises, health promotion, electrical modalities, complementary procedures, and lifestyle advice.[4] Chiropractors are not normally licensed to write medical prescriptions or perform major surgery in the United States,[64] (although New Mexico has become the first US state to allow "advanced practice" trained chiropractors to prescribe certain medications.[65][66]).

In the US, their scope of practice varies by state, based on inconsistent views of Chiropractic care: some states, such as Iowa, broadly allow treatment of "human ailments"; some, such as Delaware, use vague concepts such as "transition of nerve energy" to define scope of practice; others, such as New Jersey, specify a severely narrowed scope.[67] US states also differ over whether chiropractors may conduct laboratory tests or diagnostic procedures, dispense dietary supplements, or use other therapies such as homeopathy and acupuncture; in Oregon they can become certified to perform minor surgery and to deliver children via natural childbirth.[64] A 2003 survey of North American chiropractors found that a slight majority favored allowing them to write prescriptions for over-the-counter drugs.[39] A 2010 survey found that 72% of Swiss chiropractors considered their ability to prescribe nonprescription medication as an advantage for Chiropractic treatment.[68] A related field, veterinary Chiropractic, applies manual therapies to animals and is recognized in 40 US states,[69] but is not recognized by the American Chiropractic Association as being Chiropractic.[70] It remains controversial within certain segments of the veterinary, and Chiropractic profession.[71] No single profession "owns" spinal manipulation and there is little consensus as to which profession should administer SM, raising concerns by chiropractors that other medical physicians could "steal" SM procedures from chiropractors.[72] A focus on evidence-based SM research has also raised concerns that the resulting practice guidelines could limit the scope of Chiropractic practice to treating backs and necks.[72] Two U.S.

states (Washington and Arkansas) prohibit physical therapists from performing SM,[73] some states allow them to do it only if they have completed advanced training in SM, and some states allow only chiropractors to perform SM, or only chiropractors and physicians.

Bills to further prohibit non-chiropractors from performing SM are regularly introduced into state legislatures and are opposed by physical therapist organizations.[74] Spinal manipulation, which chiropractors call "spinal adjustment" or "Chiropractic adjustment", is the most common treatment used in Chiropractic care.[75] Spinal manipulation is a passive manual maneuver during which a three-joint complex is taken past the normal range of movement, but not so far as to dislocate or damage the joint.[76] Its defining factor is a dynamic thrust, which is a sudden force that causes an audible release and attempts to increase a joint's range of motion.[76] High-velocity, low-amplitude spinal manipulation (HVLA-SM) thrusts have physiological effects that signal neural discharge from paraspinal muscle tissues, depending on duration and amplitude of the thrust are factors of the degree in paraspinal muscle spindles activation.[77] Clinical skill in employing HVLA-SM thrusts depends on the ability of the practitioner to handle the duration and magnitude of the load.[77] More generally, spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) describes techniques where the hands are used to manipulate, massage, mobilize, adjust, stimulate, apply traction to, or otherwise influence the spine and related tissues.[76] There are several schools of Chiropractic adjustive techniques, although most chiropractors mix techniques from several schools.

The following adjustive procedures were received by more than 10% of patients of licensed U.S.

chiropractors in a 2003 survey:[75] Diversified technique (full-spine manipulation, employing various techniques), extremity adjusting, Activator technique (which uses a spring-loaded tool to deliver precise adjustments to the spine), Thompson Technique (which relies on a drop table and detailed procedural protocols), Gonstead (which emphasizes evaluating the spine along with specific adjustment that avoids rotational vectors), Cox/flexion-distraction (a gentle, low-force adjusting procedure which mixes Chiropractic with osteopathic principles and utilizes specialized adjusting tables with movable parts), adjustive instrument, Sacro-Occipital Technique (which models the spine as a torsion bar), Nimmo Receptor-Tonus Technique, applied kinesiology (which emphasises "muscle testing" as a diagnostic tool), and cranial.[78] Chiropractic biophysics technique uses inverse functions of rotations during spinal manipulation.[79] Koren Specific Technique (KST) may use their hands, or they may use an electric device known as an "ArthroStim" for assessment and spinal manipulations.[80] Insurers in the US and UK that cover other Chiropractic techniques exclude KST from coverage because they consider it to be "experimental and investigational".[80][81][82][83] Medicine-assisted manipulation, such as manipulation under anesthesia, involves sedation or local anesthetic and is done by a team that includes an anesthesiologist; a 2008 systematic review did not find enough evidence to make recommendations about its use for chronic low back pain.[84] Many other procedures are used by chiropractors for treating the spine, other joints and tissues, and general health issues.

The following procedures were received by more than one-third of patients of licensed U.S.

chiropractors in a 2003 survey: Diversified technique (full-spine manipulation; mentioned in previous paragraph), physical fitness/exercise promotion, corrective or therapeutic exercise, ergonomic/postural advice, self-care strategies, activities of daily living, changing risky/unhealthy behaviors, nutritional/dietary recommendations, relaxation/stress reduction recommendations, ice pack/cryotherapy, extremity adjusting (also mentioned in previous paragraph), trigger point therapy, and disease prevention/early screening advice.[75] A 2010 study describing Belgium chiropractors and their patients found chiropractors in Belgium mostly focus on neuromusculoskeletal complaints in adult patients, with emphasis on the spine.[85] The diversified technique is the most often applied technique at 93%, followed by the Activator mechanical-assisted technique at 41%.[85] A 2009 study assessing Chiropractic students giving or receiving spinal manipulations while attending a U.S.

Chiropractic college found Diversified, Gonstead, and upper cervical manipulations are frequently used methods.[86] Reviews of research studies within the Chiropractic community have been used to generate practice guidelines outlining standards that specify which Chiropractic treatments are "legitimate" (i.e.

supported by evidence) and conceivably reimbursable under managed care health payment systems.[72] Evidence-based guidelines are supported by one end of an ideological continuum among chiropractors; the other end employs antiscientific reasoning and makes unsubstantiated claims.[3][26][45][87][88] Chiropractic remains at a crossroads, and that in order to progress it would need to embrace science; the promotion by some for it to be a cure-all was both "misguided and irrational".[89] A 2007 survey of Alberta chiropractors found that they do not consistently apply research in practice, which may have resulted from a lack of research education and skills.[90] There is no conclusive evidence that Chiropractic is effective for the treatment of any medical condition, except perhaps for certain kinds of back pain.[7][8] Generally, the research carried out into the effectiveness of Chiropractic has been of poor quality.[91][92] Numerous controlled clinical studies of treatments used by chiropractors have been conducted, with varied results.[7] Research published by chiropractors is distinctly biased.[7] For reviews of SM for back pain Chiropractic authors tend to have positive conclusions, while others did not show any effectiveness.[7] There is a wide range of ways to measure treatment outcomes.[93] Chiropractic care, like all medical treatment, benefits from the placebo response.[94] It is difficult to construct a trustworthy placebo for clinical trials of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT), as experts often disagree about whether a proposed placebo actually has no effect.[95] The efficacy of maintenance care in Chiropractic is unknown.[10] Available evidence covers the following conditions: The World Health Organization found Chiropractic care in general is safe when employed skillfully and appropriately.[48] There is not sufficient data to establish the safety of Chiropractic manipulations.[11] Manipulation is regarded as relatively safe but complications can arise, and it has known adverse effects, risks and contraindications.[48] Absolute contraindications to spinal manipulative therapy are conditions that should not be manipulated; these contraindications include rheumatoid arthritis and conditions known to result in unstable joints.[48] Relative contraindications are conditions where increased risk is acceptable in some situations and where low-force and soft-tissue techniques are treatments of choice; these contraindications include osteoporosis.[48] Although most contraindications apply only to manipulation of the affected region, some neurological signs indicate referral to emergency medical services; these include sudden and severe headache or neck pain unlike that previously experienced.[138] Indirect risks of Chiropractic involve delayed or missed diagnoses through consulting a chiropractor.[7] Spinal manipulation is associated with frequent, mild and temporary adverse effects,[12][138] including new or worsening pain or stiffness in the affected region.[139] They have been estimated to occur in 33% to 61% of patients, and frequently occur within an hour of treatment and disappear within 24 to 48 hours;[11] adverse reactions appear to be more common following manipulation than mobilization.[140] The most frequently stated adverse effects are mild headache, soreness, and briefly elevated pain fatigue.[141] Chiropractic is correlated with a very high incidence of minor adverse effects.[7] Chiropractic are more commonly associated with serious related adverse effects than other professionals following manipulation.[15] Rarely,[48] spinal manipulation, particularly on the upper spine, can also result in complications that can lead to permanent disability or death; these can occur in adults[12] and children.[142] There is a case of a three-month-old dying following manipulation of the neck area.[137] Estimates vary widely for the incidence of these complications,[11] and the actual incidence is unknown, due to high levels of underreporting and to the difficulty of linking manipulation to adverse effects such as stroke, which is a particular concern.[12] Adverse effects are poorly reported in recent studies investigating Chiropractic manipulations.[143] A 2016 systematic review concludes that the level of reporting is unsuitable and unacceptable.[144] Reports of serious adverse events have occurred, resulting from spinal manipulation therapy of the lumbopelvic region.[145] Estimates for serious adverse events vary from 5 strokes per 100,000 manipulations to 1.46 serious adverse events per 10 million manipulations and 2.68 deaths per 10 million manipulations, though it was determined that there was inadequate data to be conclusive.[11] Several case reports show temporal associations between interventions and potentially serious complications.[146] The published medical literature contains reports of 26 deaths since 1934 following Chiropractic manipulations and many more seem to remain unpublished.[15] Vertebrobasilar artery stroke (VAS) is statistically associated with Chiropractic services in persons under 45 years of age,[147] but it is similarly associated with general practitioner services, suggesting that these associations are likely explained by preexisting conditions.[146][148] Weak to moderately strong evidence supports causation (as opposed to statistical association) between cervical manipulative therapy (CMT) and VAS.[149] There is insufficient evidence to support a strong association or no association between cervical manipulation and stroke.[13] While the biomechanical evidence is not sufficient to support the statement that CMT causes cervical artery dissection (CD), clinical reports suggest that mechanical forces have a part in a substantial number of CDs and the majority of population controlled studies found an association between CMT and VAS in young people.[150] It is strongly recommended that practitioners consider the plausibility of CD as a symptom, and people can be informed of the association between CD and CMT before administrating manipulation of the cervical spine.[150] There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of stroke from cervical manipulation.[13] Many chiropractors state that, the association between Chiropractic therapy and vertebral arterial dissection is not proven.[15] However, it has been suggested that the causality between Chiropractic cervical manipulation beyond the normal range of motion and vascular accidents is probable[15] or definite.[14] There is very low evidence supporting a small association between internal carotid artery dissection and Chiropractic neck manipulation.[151] The incidence of internal carotid artery dissection following cervical spine manipulation is unknown.[152] The literature infrequently reports helpful data to better understand the association between cervical manipulative therapy, cervical artery dissection and stroke.[153] The limited evidence is inconclusive that Chiropractic spinal manipulation therapy is not a cause of intracranial hypotension.[154] Cervical intradural disc herniation is very rare following spinal manipulation therapy.[155] Chiropractors, like other primary care providers, sometimes employ diagnostic imaging techniques such as X-rays and CT scans that rely on ionizing radiation.[156] Although there is no clear evidence for the practice, some chiropractors may still X-ray a patient several times a year.[51] Practice guidelines aim to reduce unnecessary radiation exposure,[156] which increases cancer risk in proportion to the amount of radiation received.[157] Research suggests that radiology instruction given at Chiropractic schools worldwide seem to be evidence-based.[50] Although, there seems to be a disparity between some schools and available evidence regarding the aspect of radiography for patients with acute low back pain without an indication of a serious disease, which may contribute to Chiropractic overuse of radiography for low back pain.[50] A 2012 systematic review concluded that no accurate assessment of risk-benefit exists for cervical manipulation.[13] A 2010 systematic review stated that there is no good evidence to assume that neck manipulation is an effective treatment for any medical condition and suggested a precautionary principle in healthcare for Chiropractic intervention even if a causality with vertebral artery dissection after neck manipulation were merely a remote possibility.[15] The same review concluded that the risk of death from manipulations to the neck outweighs the benefits.[15] Chiropractors have criticized this conclusion, claiming that the author did not evaluate the potential benefits of spinal manipulation.[158] Edzard Ernst stated "This detail was not the subject of my review.

I do, however, refer to such evaluations and should add that a report recently commissioned by the General Chiropractic Council did not support many of the outlandish claims made by many chiropractors across the world."[158] A 2009 review evaluating maintenance Chiropractic care found that spinal manipulation is associated with considerable harm and no compelling evidence exists to indicate that it adequately prevents symptoms or diseases, thus the risk-benefit is not evidently favorable.[159] A 2012 systematic review suggested that the use of spine manipulation in clinical practice is a cost-effective treatment when used alone or in combination with other treatment approaches.[160] A 2011 systematic review found evidence supporting the cost-effectiveness of using spinal manipulation for the treatment of sub-acute or chronic low back pain; the results for acute low back pain were insufficient.[9] A 2006 systematic cost-effectiveness review found that the reported cost-effectiveness of spinal manipulation in the United Kingdom compared favorably with other treatments for back pain, but that reports were based on data from clinical trials without sham controls and that the specific cost-effectiveness of the treatment (as opposed to non-specific effects) remains uncertain.[161] A 2005 American systematic review of economic evaluations of conservative treatments for low back pain found that significant quality problems in available studies meant that definite conclusions could not be drawn about the most cost-effective intervention.[162] The cost-effectiveness of maintenance Chiropractic care is unknown.[10] Analysis of a clinical and cost utilization data from the years 2003 to 2005 by an integrative medicine independent physician association (IPA) which looked the Chiropractic services utilization found that the clinical and cost utilization of Chiropractic services based on 70,274 member-months over a 7-year period decreased patient costs associate with the following use of services by 60% for in-hospital admissions, 59% for hospital days, 62% for outpatient surgeries and procedures, and 85% for pharmaceutical costs when compared with conventional medicine (visit to a medical doctor primary care provider) IPA performance for the same health maintenance organization product in the same geography and time frame.[163] Requirements vary between countries.

In the U.S.

chiropractors obtain a non-medical accredited diploma in the field of Chiropractic.[164] Chiropractic education in the U.S.

has been criticized for failing to meet generally accepted standards of evidence-based medicine.[165] The curriculum content of North American Chiropractic and medical colleges with regard to basic and clinical sciences has little similarity, both in the kinds of subjects offered and in the time assigned to each subject.[166] Accredited Chiropractic programs in the U.S.

require that applicants have 90 semester hours of undergraduate education with a grade point average of at least 3.0 on a 4.0 scale.

Many programs require at least three years of undergraduate education, and more are requiring a bachelor's degree.[167] Canada requires a minimum three years of undergraduate education for applicants, and at least 4200 instructional hours (or the equivalent) of full‐time Chiropractic education for matriculation through an accredited Chiropractic program.[168] Graduates of the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College (CMCC) are formally recognized to have at least 7–8 years of university level education.[169][170] The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines suggest three major full-time educational paths culminating in either a DC, DCM, BSc, or MSc degree.

Besides the full-time paths, they also suggest a conversion program for people with other health care education and limited training programs for regions where no legislation governs Chiropractic.[48] Upon graduation, there may be a requirement to pass national, state, or provincial board examinations before being licensed to practice in a particular jurisdiction.[171][172] Depending on the location, continuing education may be required to renew these licenses.[173][174] Specialty training is available through part-time postgraduate education programs such as Chiropractic orthopedics and sports Chiropractic, and through full-time residency programs such as radiology or orthopedics.[175] In the U.S., Chiropractic schools are accredited through the Council on Chiropractic Education (CCE) while the General Chiropractic Council (GCC) is the statutory governmental body responsible for the regulation of Chiropractic in the UK.[176][177] The U.S.

CCE requires a mixing curriculum, which means a straight-educated chiropractor may not be eligible for licensing in states requiring CCE accreditation.[67] CCEs in the U.S., Canada, Australia and Europe have joined to form CCE-International (CCE-I) as a model of accreditation standards with the goal of having credentials portable internationally.[178] Today, there are 18 accredited Doctor of Chiropractic programs in the U.S.,[179] 2 in Canada,[180] 6 in Australasia,[181] and 5 in Europe.[182] All but one of the Chiropractic colleges in the U.S.

are privately funded, but in several other countries they are in government-sponsored universities and colleges.[24] Of the two Chiropractic colleges in Canada, one is publicly funded (UQTR) and one is privately funded (CMCC).

In 2005, CMCC was granted the privilege of offering a professional health care degree under the Post-secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act, which sets the program within the hierarchy of education in Canada as comparable to that of other primary contact health care professions such as medicine, dentistry and optometry.[169][170] Regulatory colleges and Chiropractic boards in the U.S., Canada, Mexico, and Australia are responsible for protecting the public, standards of practice, disciplinary issues, quality assurance and maintenance of competency.[183][184] There are an estimated 49,000 chiropractors in the U.S.

(2008),[185] 6,500 in Canada (2010),[186] 2,500 in Australia (2000),[28] and 1,500 in the UK (2000).[187] Chiropractors often argue that this education is as good as or better than medical physicians', but most Chiropractic training is confined to classrooms with much time spent learning theory, adjustment, and marketing.[67] The fourth year of Chiropractic education persistently showed the highest stress levels.[188] Every student, irrespective of year, experienced different ranges of stress when studying.[188] The Chiropractic leaders and colleges have had internal struggles.[189] Rather than cooperation, there has been infighting between different factions.[189] A number of actions were posturing due to the confidential nature of the Chiropractic colleges in an attempt to enroll students.[189][clarification needed] The Chiropractic oath is a modern variation of the classical Hippocratic Oath historically taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice their professions ethically.[190] The American Chiropractic Association (ACA) has an ethical code "based upon the acknowledgement that the social contract dictates the profession's responsibilities to the patient, the public, and the profession; and upholds the fundamental principle that the paramount purpose of the Chiropractic doctor's professional services shall be to benefit the patient."[191] The International Chiropractor's Association (ICA) also has a set of professional canons.[192] A 2008 commentary proposed that the Chiropractic profession actively regulate itself to combat abuse, fraud, and quackery, which are more prevalent in Chiropractic than in other health care professions, violating the social contract between patients and physicians.[32] According to a 2015 Gallup poll of U.S.

adults, the perception of chiropractors is generally favorable; two-thirds of American adults agree that chiropractors have their patient's best interest in mind and more than half also agree that most chiropractors are trustworthy.

Less than 10% of US adults disagreed with the statement that chiropractors were trustworthy.[193][194] Chiropractors, especially in America, have a reputation for unnecessarily treating patients.[51] In many circumstances the focus seems to be put on economics instead of health care.[51] Sustained Chiropractic care is promoted as a preventive tool, but unnecessary manipulation could possibly present a risk to patients.[7] Some chiropractors are concerned by the routine unjustified claims chiropractors have made.[7] A 2010 analysis of Chiropractic websites found the majority of chiropractors and their associations made claims of effectiveness not supported by scientific evidence, while 28% of chiropractor websites advocate lower back pain care, which has some sound evidence.[197] The US Office of the Inspector General (OIG) estimates that for calendar year 2013, 82% of payments to chiropractors under Medicare part B, a total of $359 million, did not comply with Medicare requirements.[198] There have been at least 15 OIG reports about Chiropractic billing irregularities since 1986.[198] In 2009, a backlash to the libel suit filed by the British Chiropractic Association (BCA) against Simon Singh inspired the filing of formal complaints of false advertising against more than 500 individual chiropractors within one 24-hour period,[199][200] prompting the McTimoney Chiropractic Association to write to its members advising them to remove leaflets that make claims about whiplash and colic from their practice, to be wary of new patients and telephone inquiries, and telling their members: "If you have a website, take it down NOW" and "Finally, we strongly suggest you do NOT discuss this with others, especially patients.

Law practice optimization

Law practice optimization, or Legal Practice Optimization, or simply LPO as it is also known, represents the practice carried out by Law Practice Optimizers of improving the efficiency and client/attorney relationships within a law firm and improves the client intake of the firm.

LPO typically consists of three distinct stages, which are performed throughout an LPO campaign.

Prior to the advent of LPO, these three stages would have required the employment of three specialized entities, resulting in both a lengthy and expensive process.

A law firm would start by hiring a business analyst, who may or may not have been familiar with the legal industry.

Secondly, a law firm would need to investigate numerous software packages that are specialized for the legal industry.

A package would have been chosen after much research, which may or may not have been conducted thoroughly.

Ideally, the chosen software package would meet the needs of the firm, instead of only the person(s) who researched the software.

Thirdly, the firm would then employ a law firm marketing company, and perhaps a website design company, to create the firm's internet presence; and, initiate an SEO (Search Engine Optimization) campaign to increase the firm's appearance in search results presented to the queries of those seeking legal services.[1] An LPO consulting company specializes in all three stages.

Specialization increases the chances of a successful project.

Specialization within one third-party service provider also lowers costs as compared to hiring three service providers.

A greater chance of success combined with lower costs improves the likelihood of increased revenue through additional clients, improved efficiency, higher customer retention; and, an overall better return on investment.[2] Many law firms seek to decrease their reliance on paper documents or to establish a paperless office, out of consciousness for the environment, to increase efficiency and decrease operating expenses.[3] In order for a Law Firm to be optimized, an analyst would be hired to review that firm's overall presence.

This would include everything from the physical appearance and layout of the office, to the everyday work-flow being performed by the staff.

Initially the analyst would study the first impression a client received when entering the office.

The analyst might ask questions such as, is the ambiance of the reception welcoming and comforting? Is the furniture appropriate? Is the reception desk organized? Are the telephone calls being handled properly? Is the client being serviced with professionalism and confidentiality? After this initial review the analyst would spend time reviewing the firm's work, and then make suggestions to minimize unnecessary work and remove what is known as the double or triple entry system.

An example of a double entry system is commonly found when one person is performing work on a file and then logging or billing his/her time on to a billing sheet.

This billing sheet is then presented to another co-worker who then bills for work performed by another.

In this example two workers were required where only one would have sufficed.

A hired analyst would find each double entry, and make recommendations to find solutions to achieve a more efficient work-flow.

In many instances these solutions will be resolved with the use of LPO software.

Depending on the needs of the law firm, including factors such as the types of cases they handle and the size of the firm, an LPO company will typically recommend a legal practice management software package, and provide installation and training of the software.

LPO software usually consists of case management, matter-specific modules, document management, time & billing functionality and provides the user the quickest methods of communicating case details with clients to ensure clients are kept informed of the status of their case whilst any of its details are immediately available to paralegals and attorneys working on it.

LPO marketing may comprise both the development and the marketing of Internet presence for the law firm.

If the law firm has yet to possess its own website, then the LPO company will take care of the purchasing of a domain name, the creation of a suitable website and finally the internet marketing of the website through various channels, including social media channels such as Facebook and Twitter.

Vertical channels are also investigated, including online lawyer directories.

The law firm can expect to receive documented strategies and training from the LPO company so that the law firm's web site can maximize its online exposure and ultimately be found by potential clients looking for its services.

Implementing a law firm digital marketing strategy can take several months, and it is difficult to define when traffic will improve as a result of the strategy.

It may take many months after implementation for SEO to generate significant improvements in traffic.[4] Many law firms, large and small have seen the transition from solely paper based practices to dependence on technology to the point of in-house IT departments becoming integral components of their businesses.

Similarly it may not be uncommon to see full-time LPO consultants and departments sharing equally important roles in tomorrows law firms.

With the increased efficiency of the law firm and the lowered costs to the firms clients, LPO promises to be the most cost-effective method for law firms to survive any economic downturn.

Social media optimization

Social media optimization (SMO) is the use of a number of outlets and communities to generate publicity to increase the awareness of a product, service brand or event.

Types of social media involved include RSS feeds, social news and bookmarking sites, as well as social networking sites, such as Facebook, Instagram,Twitter, video sharing websites and blogging sites.

SMO is similar to search engine optimization, in that the goal is to generate web traffic and increase awareness for a website.

In general, Social media optimization refers to optimizing a website and its content to encourage more users to use and share links to the website across social media and networking sites.

SMO also refers to software tools that automate this process, or to website experts who undertake this process for clients.

The goal of SMO is to strategically create interesting online content, ranging from well-written text to eye-catching digital photos or video clips that encourages and entices people to engage with a website and then share this content, via its weblink, with their social media contacts and friends.

Common examples of social media engagement are "liking and commenting on posts, retweeting, embedding, sharing, and promoting content".[1] Social media optimization is also an effective way of implementing online reputation management (ORM), meaning that if someone posts bad reviews of a business, a SMO strategy can ensure that the negative feedback is not the first link to come up in a list of search engine results.[2] In the 2010s, with social media sites overtaking TV as a source for news for young people, news organisations have become increasingly reliant on social media platforms for generating web traffic.

Publishers such as The Economist employ large social media teams to optimise their online posts and maximise traffic,[3] while other major publishers now use advanced artificial intelligence (AI) technology to generate higher volumes of web traffic.[4] Social media optimization is becoming an increasingly important factor in search engine optimization, which is the process of designing a website in a way so that it has as high a ranking as possible on search engines.

As search engines are increasingly utilizing the recommendations of users of social networks such as Reddit, Facebook, Tumblr, Twitter, YouTube, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Instagram to rank pages in the search engine result pages.[citation needed] The implication is that when a webpage is shared or "liked" by a user on a social network, it counts as a "vote" for that webpage's quality.

Thus, search engines can use such votes accordingly to properly ranked websites in search engine results pages.

Furthermore, since it is more difficult to top the scales or influence the search engines in this way, search engines are putting more stock into social search.[5] This, coupled with increasingly personalized search based on interests and location, has significantly increased the importance of a social media presence in search engine optimization.

Due to personalized search results, location-based social media presences on websites such as Yelp, Google Places, Foursquare, and Yahoo! Local have become increasingly important.

While Social media optimization is related to search engine marketing, it differs in several ways.

Primarily, SMO focuses on driving web traffic from sources other than search engines, though improved search engine ranking is also a benefit of successful Social media optimization.

Further, SMO is helpful to target particular geographic regions in order to target and reach potential customers.

This helps in lead generation (finding new customers) and contributes to high conversion rates (i.e., converting previously uninterested individuals into people who are interested in a brand or organization).

Social media optimization is in many ways connected to the technique of viral marketing or "viral seeding" where word of mouth is created through the use of networking in social bookmarking, video and photo sharing websites.

An effective SMO campaign can harness the power of viral marketing; for example, 80% of activity on Pinterest is generated through "repinning."[citation needed] Furthermore, by following social trends and utilizing alternative social networks, websites can retain existing followers while also attracting new ones.

This allows businesses to build an online following and presence, all linking back to the company's website for increased traffic.

For example, with an effective social bookmarking campaign, not only can website traffic be increased, but a site's rankings can also be increased.

In a similar way, the engagement with blogs creates a similar result by sharing content through the use of RSS in the blogosphere and special blog search engines.

Social media optimization is considered an integral part of an online reputation management (ORM) or search engine reputation management (SERM) strategy for organizations or individuals who care about their online presence.[6] SMO is one of six key influencers that affect Social Commerce Construct (SCC).

Online activities such as consumers' evaluations and advices on products and services constitute part of what creates a Social Commerce Construct (SCC).[7] Social media optimization is not limited to marketing and brand building.

Increasingly, smart businesses are integrating social media participation as part of their knowledge management strategy (i.e., product/service development, recruiting, employee engagement and turnover, brand building, customer satisfaction and relations, business development and more).

Additionally, Social media optimization can be implemented to foster a community of the associated site, allowing for a healthy business-to-consumer (B2C) relationship.[8] According to technologist Danny Sullivan, the term "Social media optimization" was first used and described by marketer Rohit Bhargava[9][10] on his marketing blog in August 2006.

In the same post, Bhargava established the five important rules of Social media optimization.

Bhargava believed that by following his rules, anyone could influence the levels of traffic and engagement on their site, increase popularity, and ensure that it ranks highly in search engine results.

An additional 11 SMO rules have since been added to the list by other marketing contributors.

The 16 rules of SMO, according to one source, are as follows:[11] Bhargava's initial five rules were more specifically designed to SMO, while the list is now much broader and addresses everything that can be done across different social media platforms.

According to author and CEO of TopRank Online Marketing, Lee Odden, a Social Media Strategy is also necessary to ensure optimization.

This is a similar concept to Bhargava's list of rules for SMO.

The Social Media Strategy may consider:[12] According to Lon Safko and David K.

Brake in The Social Media Bible, it is also important to act like a publisher by maintaining an effective organisational strategy, to have an original concept and unique "edge" that differentiates one's approach from competitors, and to experiment with new ideas if things do not work the first time.[2] If a business is blog-based, an effective method of SMO is using widgets that allow users to share content to their personal social media platforms.

This will ultimately reach a wider target audience and drive more traffic to the original post.

Blog widgets and plug-ins for post-sharing are most commonly linked to Facebook, Google+, LinkedIn, and Twitter.

They occasionally also link to social media platforms such as StumbleUpon, Tumblr, and Pinterest.

Many sharing widgets also include user counters which indicate how many times the content has been liked and shared across different social media pages.

This can influence whether or not new users will engage with the post, and also gives businesses an idea of what kind of posts are most successful at engaging audiences.

By using relevant and trending keywords in titles and throughout blog posts, a business can also increase search engine optimization and the chances of their content of being read and shared by a large audience.[12] The root of effective SMO is the content that is being posted, so professional content creation tools can be very beneficial.

These can include editing programs such as Photoshop, GIMP, Final Cut Pro, and Dreamweaver.

Many websites also offer customization options such as different layouts to personalize a page and create a point of difference.[2] With social media sites overtaking TV as a source for news for young people, news organisations have become increasingly reliant on social media platforms for generating traffic.

A report by Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism described how a 'second wave of disruption' had hit news organisations,[13] with publishers such as The Economist having to employ large social media teams to optimism their posts and maximize traffic.[3] Major publishers such as Le Monde and Vogue now use advanced artificial intelligence (AI) technology from Echobox to post stories more effectively and generate higher volumes of traffic.[4] Within the context of the publishing industry, even professional fields are utilizing SMO.

Because doctors want to maximize exposure to their research findings SMO has also found a place in the medical field.[14] Social media gaming is online gaming activity performed through social media sites with friends and online gaming activity that promotes social media interaction.

Examples of the former include FarmVille, Clash of Clans, Clash Royale, FrontierVille, and Mafia Wars.

In these games a player's social network is exploited to recruit additional players and allies.

An example of the latter is Empire Avenue, a virtual stock exchange where players buy and sell shares of each other's social network worth.

Nielsen Media Research estimates that, as of June 2010, social networking and playing online games account for about one-third of all online activity by Americans.[15] Facebook has in recent years become a popular channel for advertising, alongside traditional forms such as television, radio, and print.

With over 1 billion active users, and 50% of those users logging into their accounts every day[16] it is an important communication platform that businesses can utilize and optimize to promote their brand and drive traffic to their websites.

There are three commonly used strategies to increase advertising reach on Facebook: Improving effectiveness and increasing network size are organic approaches, while buying more reach is a paid approach which does not require any further action.[17] Most businesses will attempt an "organic" approach to gaining a significant following before considering a paid approach.

Because Facebook requires a login, it is important that posts are public to ensure they will reach the widest possible audience.

Posts that have been heavily shared and interacted with by users are displayed as 'highlighted posts' at the top of newsfeeds.

In order to achieve this status, the posts need to be engaging, interesting, or useful.

This can be achieved by being spontaneous, asking questions, addressing current events and issues, and optimizing trending hashtags and keywords.

The more engagement a post receives, the further it will spread and the more likely it is to feature on first in search results.

Another organic approach to Facebook optimization is cross-linking different social platforms.

By posting links to websites or social media sites in the profile 'about' section, it is possible to direct traffic and ultimately increase search engine optimization.

Another option is to share links to relevant videos and blog posts.[12] Facebook Connect is a functionality that launched in 2008 to allow Facebook users to sign up to different websites, enter competitions, and access exclusive promotions by logging in with their existing Facebook account details.

This is beneficial to users as they don't have to create a new login every time they want to sign up to a website, but also beneficial to businesses as Facebook users become more likely to share their content.

Often the two are interlinked, where in order to access parts of a website, a user has to like or share certain things on their personal profile or invite a number of friends to like a page.

This can lead to greater traffic flow to a website as it reaches a wider audience.

Businesses have more opportunities to reach their target markets if they choose a paid approach to SMO.

When Facebook users create an account, they are urged to fill out their personal details such as gender, age, location, education, current and previous employers, religious and political views, interests, and personal preferences such as movie and music tastes.

Facebook then takes this information and allows advertisers to use it to determine how to best market themselves to users that they know will be interested in their product.

This can also be known as micro-targeting.

If a user clicks on a link to like a page, it will show up on their profile and newsfeed.

This then feeds back into organic Social media optimization, as friends of the user will see this and be encouraged to click on the page themselves.

Although advertisers are buying mass reach, they are attracting a customer base with a genuine interest in their product.

Once a customer base has been established through a paid approach, businesses will often run promotions and competitions to attract more organic followers.[11] The number of businesses that use Facebook to advertise also holds significant relevance.

Currently there are three million businesses that advertise on Facebook.[18] This makes Facebook the world's largest platform for social media advertising.

What also holds importance is the amount of money leading businesses are spending on Facebook advertising alone.

Procter & Gamble spend $60 million every year on Facebook advertising.[19] Other advertisers on Facebook include Microsoft, with a yearly spend of £35 million, Amazon, Nestle and American Express all with yearly expenditures above £25 million per year.

Furthermore, the number of small businesses advertising on Facebook is of relevance.

This number has grown rapidly over the upcoming years and demonstrates how important social media advertising actually is.

Currently 70% of the UK's small businesses use Facebook advertising.[20] This is a substantial number of advertisers.

Almost half of the world's small businesses use social media marketing product of some sort.

This demonstrates the impact that social media has had on the current digital marketing era.

Antihistamine

Antihistamines are drugs which treat allergic rhinitis and other allergies.[1] Typically people take Antihistamines as an inexpensive, generic, over-the-counter drug that can provide relief from nasal congestion, sneezing, or hives caused by pollen, dust mites, or animal allergy with few side effects.[1] Antihistamines are usually for short-term treatment.[1] Chronic allergies increase the risk of health problems which Antihistamines might not treat, including asthma, sinusitis, and lower respiratory tract infection.[1] Consultation of a medical professional is recommended for those who intend to take Antihistamines for longer-term use.[1] Although people typically use the word “Antihistamine” to describe drugs for treating allergies, doctors and scientists use the term to describe a class of drug that opposes the activity of histamine receptors in the body.[2] In this sense of the word, Antihistamines are subclassified according to the histamine receptor that they act upon.

The two largest classes of Antihistamines are H1-Antihistamines and H2-Antihistamines.

H1-Antihistamines work by binding to histamine H1 receptors in mast cells, smooth muscle, and endothelium in the body as well as in the tuberomammillary nucleus in the brain.

Antihistamines that target the histamine H1-receptor are used to treat allergic reactions in the nose (e.g., itching, runny nose, and sneezing).

In addition, they may be used to treat insomnia, motion sickness, or vertigo caused by problems with the inner ear.

H2-Antihistamines bind to histamine H2 receptors in the upper gastrointestinal tract, primarily in the stomach.

Antihistamines that target the histamine H2-receptor are used to treat gastric acid conditions (e.g., peptic ulcers and acid reflux).

Histamine receptors exhibit constitutive activity, so Antihistamines can function as either a neutral receptor antagonist or an inverse agonist at histamine receptors.[2][3][4][5] Only a few currently marketed H1-Antihistamines are known to function as inverse agonists.[2][5] Histamine produces increased vascular permeability, causing fluid to escape from capillaries into tissues, which leads to the classic symptoms of an allergic reaction — a runny nose and watery eyes.

Histamine also promotes angiogenesis.[6] Antihistamines suppress the histamine-induced wheal response (swelling) and flare response (vasodilation) by blocking the binding of histamine to its receptors or reducing histamine receptor activity on nerves, vascular smooth muscle, glandular cells, endothelium, and mast cells.

Itching, sneezing, and inflammatory responses are suppressed by Antihistamines that act on H1-receptors.[2][7] In 2014, Antihistamines such as desloratadine were found to be effective as adjuvants to standardized treatment of acne due to their anti-inflammatory properties and their ability to suppress sebum production.[8][9] H1-Antihistamines refer to compounds that inhibit the activity of the H1 receptor.[4][5] Since the H1 receptor exhibits constitutive activity, H1-Antihistamines can be either neutral receptor antagonists or inverse agonists.[4][5] Normally, histamine binds to the H1 receptor and heightens the receptor's activity; the receptor antagonists work by binding to the receptor and blocking the activation of the receptor by histamine; by comparison, the inverse agonists bind to the receptor and both block the binding of histamine, and reduce its constitutive activity, an effect which is opposite to histamine's.[4] Most Antihistamines are inverse agonists at the H1 receptor, but it was previously thought that they were antagonists.[10] Clinically, H1-Antihistamines are used to treat allergic reactions and mast cell-related disorders.

Sedation is a common side effect of H1-Antihistamines that readily cross the blood–brain barrier; some of these drugs, such as diphenhydramine and doxylamine, may therefore be used to treat insomnia.

H1-Antihistamines can also reduce inflammation, since the expression of NF-κB, the transcription factor the regulates inflammatory processes, is promoted by both the receptor's constitutive activity and agonist (i.e., histamine) binding at the H1 receptor.[2] A combination of these effects, and in some cases metabolic ones as well, lead to most first-generation Antihistamines having analgesic-sparing (potentiating) effects on opioid analgesics and to some extent with non-opioid ones as well.

The most common Antihistamines utilized for this purpose include hydroxyzine, promethazine (enzyme induction especially helps with codeine and similar prodrug opioids), phenyltoloxamine, orphenadrine, and tripelennamine; some may also have intrinsic analgesic properties of their own, orphenadrine being an example.

Second-generation Antihistamines cross the blood–brain barrier to a much lesser extent than the first-generation Antihistamines.

They minimize sedatory effects due to their focused effect on peripheral histamine receptors.

However, upon high doses second-generation Antihistamines will begin to act on the central nervous system and thus can induce drowsiness when ingested in higher quantity.

Additionally, some second-generation Antihistamines, notably cetirizine, can interact with CNS psychoactive drugs such as bupropion and benzodiazepines.[11] H2-Antihistamines, like H1-Antihistamines, exist as inverse agonists and neutral antagonists.

They act on H2 histamine receptors found mainly in the parietal cells of the gastric mucosa, which are part of the endogenous signaling pathway for gastric acid secretion.

Normally, histamine acts on H2 to stimulate acid secretion; drugs that inhibit H2 signaling thus reduce the secretion of gastric acid.

H2-Antihistamines are among first-line therapy to treat gastrointestinal conditions including peptic ulcers and gastroesophageal reflux disease.

Some formulations are available over the counter.

Most side effects are due to cross-reactivity with unintended receptors.

Cimetidine, for example, is notorious for antagonizing androgenic testosterone and DHT receptors at high doses.

Examples include: An H3-Antihistamine is a classification of drugs used to inhibit the action of histamine at the H3 receptor.

H3 receptors are primarily found in the brain and are inhibitory autoreceptors located on histaminergic nerve terminals, which modulate the release of histamine.

Histamine release in the brain triggers secondary release of excitatory neurotransmitters such as glutamate and acetylcholine via stimulation of H1 receptors in the cerebral cortex.

Consequently, unlike the H1-Antihistamines which are sedating, H3-Antihistamines have stimulant and cognition-modulating effects.

Examples of selective H3-Antihistamines include: H4-Antihistamines inhibit the activity of the H4 receptor.

Examples: Inhibit the action of histidine decarboxylase: Mast cell stabilizers are drugs which prevent mast cell degranulation.

Currently most people who use an Antihistamine to treat allergies use a second-generation drug.[1] The first generation of Antihistamine drugs became available in the 1930s.[16] This marked the beginning of medical treatment of nasal allergies.[16] Research into these drugs led to the discovery that they were H1 antagonists and also to the development of H2 antagonists, where H1 Antihistamines affected the nose and the H2 Antihistamines affected the stomach.[17] This history has led to contemporary research into drugs which are H3 receptor antagonist and which affect the Histamine H4 receptor.[17] Antihistamines can vary greatly in cost.[1] Some patients consult their doctor about drug prices to make a decision about which Antihistamine to choose.[1] Many Antihistamines are older and available in generic form.[1] Others are newer, still under patent, and generally expensive.[1] The newer drugs are not necessarily safer or more effective.[1] Because so many Antihistamines are available, patients can have conversations with their health care provider to choose the right drug for them.[1] The United States government removed two second generation Antihistamines, terfenadine and astemizole, from the market based on evidence that they could cause heart problems.[1] Not much published research exists which compares the efficacy and safety of the various Antihistamines available.[1] The research which does exist is mostly short-term studies or studies which look at too few people to make general assumptions.[1] Another gap in the research is in information reporting the health effects for individuals with long term allergies to take Antihistamines for a long period of time.[1] Newer Antihistamines have been demonstrated to be effective in treating hives.[1] However, there is not research comparing the relative efficacy of these drugs.[1] Most studies of Antihistamines reported on people who are younger, so the effects on people over age 65 are not as well understood.[1] Older people are more likely to experience drowsiness from Antihistamine use than younger people.[1] Also, most of the research has been on white people and other ethnicities are not as represented in the research.[1] The evidence does not report how Antihistamines affect women differently than men.[1] Different studies have reported on Antihistamine use in children, with various studies finding evidence that certain Antihistamines could be used by children 2 years of age, and other drugs being safer for younger or older children.[1]

Growth hacking

Growth hacking is a relatively new[when?] field in marketing focused on growth.

It started in relation to early-stage startups who need massive growth in a short time on small budgets, but has since then also reached bigger corporate companies.

The goal of Growth hacking strategies is generally to acquire as many users or customers as possible while spending as little as possible.

A Growth hacking team is made up of marketers, developers, engineers and product managers that specifically focus on building and engaging the user base of a business.[1] The typical growth hacker often focuses on finding smarter, low-cost alternatives to traditional marketing, e.g.

using social media, viral marketing or targeted advertising[2] instead of buying advertising through more traditional media such as radio, newspaper, and television.[3] Growth hacking is particularly prevalent with startups, when the goal is finding product/market-fit or achieving rapid growth in the early-stages of launching a new product or service to market.[4] Growth hacking may focus on lowering cost per customer acquisition, or it may focus on long-term sustainability.

"The goal of any marketing should be long-term sustainable growth, not just a short-term gain.

Growth hacking is about optimization as well as lead generation.

Imagine your business is a bucket and your leads are water.

You do not want to pour water into a leaky bucket; it is a waste of money.

That is why a true growth hacker would care about customer retention."[5] Those who specialize in Growth hacking use various types of marketing and product iterations to rapidly test persuasive copy, email marketing, SEO and viral strategies, among other tools and techniques, with a goal of increasing conversion rates and achieving rapid growth of the user base.

Some consider Growth hacking[6] a part of the online marketing ecosystem, as in many cases growth hackers are using techniques such as search engine optimization, website analytics, content marketing and A/B testing.

On the other hand, not all marketers have all the data and technical skills required by a growth hacker[7], therefore a separate name for this field is applicable.

Product development is also heavily influenced by the growth hacker mindset.

Instead of long development cycles followed by user testing.

Growth hackers start user testing with wireframes and sketches; validating ideas at every stage.

A growth hacker in a product development role would start user testing in a coffee shop instead of a corporate usability lab.[8] Sean Ellis coined the term "growth hacker" in 2010.[9] In the blog post, he defined a growth hacker as "a person whose true north is growth.

Everything they do is scrutinized by its potential impact on scalable growth."[9] Andrew Chen introduced the term to a wider audience in a blog post titled, "Growth Hacker is the new VP Marketing"[10] in which he defined the term and used the short term vacation rental platform Airbnb's integration of Craigslist as an example.[11][12] He wrote that growth hackers "are a hybrid of marketer and coder, one who looks at the traditional question of 'How do I get customers for my product?' and answers with A/B tests, landing pages, viral factor, email deliverability, and Open Graph."[13][12] In the book "Growth hacking", Chad Riddersen and Raymond Fong define a Growth Hacker as "a highly resourceful and creative marketer singularly focused on high leverage growth" [14] The second annual (2013) "Growth Hackers Conference" was held in San Francisco set up by Gagan Biyani.[15] It featured growth hackers from LinkedIn, Twitter, and YouTube among others.[15] In 2015, Sean Ellis and Everette Taylor created GrowthHackers - the largest website community dedicated to Growth hacking and now host the annual GrowthHackers Conference.

To combat this lack of money and experience, growth hackers approach marketing with a focus on innovation, scalability, and user connectivity.[16][17] Growth hacking does not, however, separate product design and product effectiveness from marketing.[18][19] Growth hackers build the product's potential growth, including user acquisition, on-boarding, monetization, retention, and virality, into the product itself.[20] Fast Company used Twitter's "Suggested Users List" as example: "This was Twitter's real secret: It built marketing into the product rather than building infrastructure to do a lot of marketing."[21] However Growth hacking isn't always free.

TechCrunch shared several nearly free growth hacks[22] explaining that Growth hacking is effective marketing and not mythical marketing pixie dust.

As new tools(SaaS) come out specifically that focus on more advanced forms of Growth hacking, more and more tools are being offered as free.[23] The heart of Growth hacking is the relentless focus on growth as the only metric that truly matters.[24] Mark Zuckerberg had this mindset while growing Facebook.[25] While the exact methods vary from company to company and from one industry to the next, the common denominator is always growth.

Companies that have successfully "growth hacked" usually have a viral loop naturally built into their onboarding process.[26] New customers typically hear about the product or service through their network and by using the product or service, share it with their connections in turn.

This loop of awareness, use, and sharing can result in exponential growth for the company.[27] Growth hacking frames the user acquisition process through the "Pirate Funnel" metaphor (in short, new users flow through a 6-stage funnel - awareness, acquisition, activation, retention, revenue, referral), which got its name from the abbreviation of the first six letters spelling AAARRR.

Rapidly optimizing this process is a core goal of Growth hacking, since making each stage of the funnel more efficient will increase the number of users in the most advantageous stages of the funnel.[28] Twitter, Facebook, Dropbox, Pinterest, YouTube, Groupon, Udemy, Instagram and Google are all companies that used and still use Growth hacking techniques to build brands and improve profits.[29] The examples below are called growth hacks and are the most well-known acts of Growth hacking.

Often people see Growth hacking as merely repeating these growth hacks, but one should know that the 'hacks' are only the result of a repeatable Growth hacking process[30], which all growth hackers use a way of working.

Below are some of the most famous Growth hacking examples:

Torticollis

Torticollis, also known as wry neck, is a dystonic condition defined by an abnormal, asymmetrical head or neck position, which may be due to a variety of causes.

The term Torticollis is derived from the Latin words tortus for twisted and collum for neck.[1][2] The most common case has no obvious cause, and the pain and difficulty with turning the head usually goes away after a few days, even without treatment.[3] Torticollis is a fixed or dynamic tilt, rotation, with flexion or extension of the head and/or neck.

The type of Torticollis can be described depending on the positions of the head and neck.[1][4][5] A combination of these movements may often be observed.

Torticollis can be a disorder in itself as well as a symptom in other conditions.

Other symptoms include:[8][9] A multitude of conditions may lead to the development of Torticollis including: muscular fibrosis, congenital spine abnormalities, or toxic or traumatic brain injury.[2] A rough categorization discerns between congenital Torticollis and acquired Torticollis.

Other categories include:[10] The congenital muscular Torticollis is the most common Torticollis which is present at birth.[11] The cause of congenital muscular Torticollis is unclear.

Birth trauma or intrauterine malposition is considered to be the cause of damage to the sternocleidomastoid muscle in the neck.[2] Other alterations to the muscle tissue arise from repetitive microtrauma within the womb or a sudden change in the calcium concentration in the body which causes a prolonged period of muscle contraction.[12] Any of these mechanisms can result in a shortening or excessive contraction of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, which curtails its range of motion in both rotation and lateral bending.

The head typically is tilted in lateral bending toward the affected muscle and rotated toward the opposite side.

In other words, the head itself is tilted in the direction towards the shortened muscle with the chin tilted in the opposite direction.[10] Congenital Torticollis is presented at 1–4 weeks of age, and a hard mass usually develops.

It is normally diagnosed using ultrasonography and a colour histogram or clinically through evaluating the infant's passive cervical range of motion.[13] Congenital Torticollis constitutes the majority of cases seen in clinical practice.[10] The reported incidence of congenital Torticollis is 0.3-2.0%.[14] Sometimes a mass, such as a sternocleidomastoid tumor, is noted in the affected muscle at the age of two to four weeks.

Gradually it disappears, usually by the age of eight months, but the muscle is left fibrotic.[2] Noncongenital muscular Torticollis may result from scarring or disease of cervical vertebrae, adenitis, tonsillitis, rheumatism, enlarged cervical glands, retropharyngeal abscess, or cerebellar tumors.

It may be spasmodic (clonic) or permanent (tonic).

The latter type may be due to Pott's Disease (tuberculosis of the spine).

Torticollis with recurrent, but transient contraction of the muscles of the neck and especially of the sternocleidomastoid, is called spasmodic Torticollis.

Synonyms are "intermittent Torticollis", "cervical dystonia" or "idiopathic cervical dystonia", depending on cause.

Torticollis may be unrelated to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, instead caused by damage to the trochlear nerve (fourth cranial nerve), which supplies the superior oblique muscle of the eye.

The superior oblique muscle is involved in depression, abduction, and intorsion of the eye.

When the trochlear nerve is damaged, the eye is extorted because the superior oblique is not functioning.

The affected person will have vision problems unless they turn their head away from the side that is affected, causing intorsion of the eye and balancing out the extorsion of the eye.

This can be diagnosed by the Bielschowsky test, also called the head-tilt test, where the head is turned to the affected side.

A positive test occurs when the affected eye elevates, seeming to float up.[17] The underlying anatomical distortion causing Torticollis is a shortened sternocleidomastoid muscle.

This is the muscle of the neck that originates at the sternum and clavicle and inserts on the mastoid process of the temporal bone on the same side.[10] There are two sternocleidomastoid muscles in the human body and when they both contract, the neck is flexed.

The main blood supply for these muscles come from the occipital artery, superior thyroid artery, transverse scapular artery and transverse cervical artery.[10] The main innervation to these muscles is from cranial nerve XI (the accessory nerve) but the second, third and fourth cervical nerves are also involved.[10] Pathologies in these blood and nerve supplies can lead to Torticollis.

Evaluation of a child with Torticollis begins with history taking to determine circumstances surrounding birth and any possibility of trauma or associated symptoms.

Physical examination reveals decreased rotation and bending to the side opposite from the affected muscle.

Some[who?] say that congenital cases more often involve the right side, but there is not complete agreement about this in published studies.

Evaluation should include a thorough neurologic examination, and the possibility of associated conditions such as developmental dysplasia of the hip and clubfoot should be examined.

Radiographs of the cervical spine should be obtained to rule out obvious bony abnormality, and MRI should be considered if there is concern about structural problems or other conditions.

Ultrasonography can be used to visualize muscle tissue, with a colour histogram generated to determine cross-sectional area and thickness of the muscle.[18] Evaluation by an optometrist or an ophthalmologist should be considered in children to ensure that the Torticollis is not caused by vision problems (IV cranial nerve palsy, nystagmus-associated "null position," etc.).

Differential diagnosis for Torticollis includes[10][19] Cervical dystonia appearing in adulthood has been believed to be idiopathic in nature, as specific imaging techniques most often find no specific cause.[20] Initially, the condition is treated with physical therapies, such as stretching to release tightness, strengthening exercises to improve muscular balance, and handling to stimulate symmetry.

A TOT collar is sometimes applied.

Early initiation of treatment is very important for full recovery and to decrease chance of relapse.[10] Physical therapy is an option for treating Torticollis in a non-invasive and cost-effective manner.[21] While outpatient infant physiotherapy is effective, home therapy performed by a parent or guardian is just as effective in reversing the effects of congenital Torticollis.[12] It is important for physical therapists to educate parents on the importance of their role in treatment and to create a home treatment plan together with them for the best results for their child.

Five components have been recognized as the "first choice intervention" in PT for treatment of Torticollis and include neck passive range of motion, neck and trunk active range of motion, development of symmetrical movement, environmental adaptations, and caregiver education.

In therapy, parents or guardians should expect their child to be provided with these important components, explained in detail below.[22] Lateral neck flexion and overall range of motion can be regained quicker in newborns when parents conduct physical therapy exercises several times a day.[12] Physical therapists should teach parents and guardians to perform the following exercises:[12] Physical therapists often encourage parents and caregivers of children with Torticollis to modify the environment to improve neck movements and position.

Modifications may include: A Korean study has recently[when?] introduced an additional treatment called microcurrent therapy that may be effective in treating congenital Torticollis.

For this therapy to be effective the children should be under three months of age and have Torticollis involving the entire sternocleidomastoid muscle with a palpable mass and a muscle thickness over 10 mm.

Microcurrent therapy sends minute electrical signals into tissue to restore the normal frequencies in cells.[18] Microcurrent therapy is completely painless and children can only feel the probe from the machine on their skin.[18] Microcurrent therapy is thought to increase ATP and protein synthesis as well as enhance blood flow, reduce muscle spasms and decrease pain along with inflammation.[18] It should be used in addition to regular stretching exercises and ultrasound diathermy.

Ultrasound diathermy generates heat deep within body tissues to help with contractures, pain and muscle spasms as well as decrease inflammation.

This combination of treatments shows remarkable outcomes in the duration of time children are kept in rehabilitation programs: Micocurrent therapy can cut the length of a rehabilitation program almost in half with a full recovery seen after 2.6 months.[18] About 5–10% of cases fail to respond to stretching and require surgical release of the muscle.[23][24] Surgical release involves the two heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscle being dissected free.

This surgery can be minimally invasive and done laparoscopically.

Usually surgery is performed on those who are over 12 months old.

The surgery is for those who do not respond to physical therapy or botulinum toxin injection or have a very fibrotic sternocleidomastoid muscle.[8] After surgery the child will be required to wear a soft neck collar (also called a Callot's cast).

There will be an intense physiotherapy program for 3–4 months as well as strengthening exercises for the neck muscles.[25] Other treatments include:[12] Studies and evidence from clinical practice show that 85–90% of cases of congenital Torticollis are resolved with conservative treatment such as physical therapy.[22] Earlier intervention is shown to be more effective and faster than later treatments.

More than 98% of infants with Torticollis treated before 1 month of age recover by 2.5 months of age.[22] Infants between 1 and 6 months usually require about 6 months of treatment.[22] After that point, therapy will take closer to 9 months, and it is less likely that the Torticollis will be fully resolved.[22] It is possible that Torticollis will resolve spontaneously, but chance of relapse is possible.[10] For this reason, infants should be reassessed by their physical therapist or other provider 3–12 months after their symptoms have resolved.[22] In veterinary literature usually only the lateral bend of head and neck is termed Torticollis, whereas the analogon to the rotatory Torticollis in humans is called a head tilt.

The most frequently encountered form of Torticollis in domestic pets is the head tilt, but occasionally a lateral bend of the head and neck to one side is encountered.

Causes for a head tilt in domestic animals are either diseases of the central or peripheral vestibular system or relieving posture due to neck pain.

Known causes for head tilt in domestic animals include:

Political campaign

A Political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making progress within a specific group.

In democracies, Political campaigns often refer to electoral campaigns, by which representatives are chosen or referendums are decided.

In modern politics, the most high-profile Political campaigns are focused on general elections and candidates for head of state or head of government, often a president or prime minister.

The message of the campaign contains the ideas that the candidate wants to share with the voters.

It is to get those who agree with their ideas to support them when running for a political position.

The message often consists of several talking points about policy issues.

The points summarize the main ideas of the campaign and are repeated frequently in order to create a lasting impression with the voters.

In many elections, the opposition party will try to get the candidate "off message" by bringing up policy or personal questions that are not related to the talking points.

Most campaigns prefer to keep the message broad in order to attract the most potential voters.

A message that is too narrow can alienate voters or slow the candidate down with explaining details.

For example, in the 2008 American presidential election John McCain originally used a message that focused on his patriotism and political experience: "Country First"; later the message was changed to shift attention to his role as "The Original Maverick" within the political establishment.

Barack Obama ran on a consistent, simple message of "change" throughout his campaign.

However, even if the message is crafted carefully, it does not assure the candidate a victory at the polls.

Fundraising techniques include having the candidate call or meet with large donors, sending direct mail pleas to small donors, and courting interest groups who could end up spending millions on the race if it is significant to their interests.

In a modern Political campaign, the campaign organization (or "machine") will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size.

Successful campaigns usually require a campaign manager to coordinate the campaign's operations.

Apart from a candidate, they are often a campaign's most visible leader.

Modern campaign managers may be concerned with executing strategy rather than setting it - particularly if the senior strategists are typically outside political consultants such as primarily pollsters and media consultants.

Political consultants advise campaigns on virtually all of their activities, from research to field strategy.

Consultants conduct candidate research, voter research, and opposition research for their clients.

Activists are the "foot soldiers" loyal to the cause, the true believers who will carry the run by volunteer activists.

Such volunteers and interns may take part in activities such as canvassing door-to-door and making phone calls on behalf of the campaigns.

A campaign team (which may be as small as one inspired individual, or a heavily resourced group of professionals) must consider how to communicate the message of the campaign, recruit volunteers, and raise money.

Campaign advertising draws on techniques from commercial advertising and propaganda, also entertainment and public relations, a mixture dubbed politainment.

The avenues available to Political campaigns when distributing their messages is limited by the law, available resources, and the imagination of the campaigns' participants.

These techniques are often combined into a formal strategy known as the campaign plan.

The plan takes account of a campaign's goal, message, target audience, and resources available.

The campaign will typically seek to identify supporters at the same time as getting its message across.

The modern, open campaign method was pioneered by Aaron Burr during the American presidential election of 1800.[1][2][3] Election campaign communication refers to party-controlled communication, e.g.

campaign advertising, and party-uncontrolled communication, e.g.

media coverage of elections.

Campaign advertising is the use of paid media (newspapers, radio, television, etc.) to influence the decisions made for and by groups.

These ads are designed by political consultants and the campaign's staff.

The public media (in US parlance "free media" or "earned media") may run the story that someone is trying to get elected or to do something about certain aspects regarding their specific country.

The internet is now a core element of modern Political campaigns.

Communication technologies such as e-mail, websites, and podcasts for various forms of activism enable faster communications by citizen movements and deliver a message to a large audience.

These Internet technologies are used for cause-related fundraising, lobbying, volunteering, community building, and organizing.

Individual political candidates are also using the internet to promote their election campaign.

In a study of Norwegian election campaigns, politicians reported they used social media for marketing and for dialogue with voters.

Facebook was the primary platform for marketing and Twitter was used for more continuous dialogue.[4] Signifying the importance of internet Political campaigning, Barack Obama's presidential campaign relied heavily on social media, Search Engine Optimisation (SEO) and new media channels to engage voters, recruit campaign volunteers, and raise campaign funds.

The campaign brought the spotlight on the importance of using internet in new-age Political campaigning by utilizing various forms of social media and new media (including Facebook, YouTube and a custom generated social engine) to reach new target populations.

The campaign's social website, my.BarackObama.com, utilized a low cost and efficient method of mobilizing voters and increasing participation among various voter populations.[5] This new media was incredibly successful at reaching the younger population while helping all populations organize and promote action.

Now Online Election campaign has got a new dimension, the campaign information can be shared as in Rich Info format through campaign landing pages, integrating Google's rich snippets, structured data,[6] Social media open graphs, and husting support file formats for YouTube like .sbv (SubRip), .srt (subtitle resource track), .vtt (Video text trace), high proficiency and effective algorithmic integration will be the core factor in the frame-work.

This technology integration helps campaign information to reach a wide audience in split seconds.

This has successfully been tested and implemented in 2015 Aruvikkara Election Kerala.[7]* Marcus Giavanni, social media consultant and blockchain developer and second place opponent in the 2015 election, was first to file for the 2019 election.

Marcus Giavanni Uses Advanced Algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, and Voice Indexing Predictions to box in campaigns.[8] A husting, or the hustings, was originally a physical platform from which representatives presented their views or cast votes before a parliamentary or other election body.

By metonymy, the term may now refer to any event, such as debates or speeches, during an election campaign where one or more of the representative candidates are present.

Search Engine Manipulation Effect (SEME) Search Engine Manipulation Effect (SEME), and the ability to reach the millennial demographic over social media and search engines, has become an important component to online Husting-based campaign efforts.

It's evident that SEME can influence unbiased voters heavily, a study by Mr.

Ronald E.

Robertson (Senior Research Psychologist at the American Institute of Behavioural Research and Technology and the former editor in chief of Psychology Today ) An informational campaign is a Political campaign designed to raise public awareness and support for the positions of a candidate (or her/his party).[11] It is more intense than a paper campaign, which consists of little more than filing the necessary papers to get on the ballot, but is less intense than a competitive campaign, which aims to actually win election to the office.

An informational campaign typically focuses on low-cost outreach such as news releases, getting interviewed in the paper, making a brochure for door to door distribution, organizing poll workers, etc.[12] A paper campaign is a Political campaign in which the candidate only files the necessary paperwork to appear on the ballot.[13][14] The purpose of such a token effort may be simply to increase name awareness of a minor political party or to give voters of a certain ideology an opportunity to vote accordingly.

It can be a cost-effective means of attracting media coverage.

An informational campaign, by contrast, may involve news releases, newspaper interviews, door-to-door campaigning, and organizing polls.

As the level of seriousness rises, the marginal cost of reaching more people rises accordingly, due to the high cost of TV commercials, paid staff, etc.

which are used by competitive campaigns.[15] The United States is unusual in that dozens of different offices are filled by election, from drain commissioner to the President of the United States.

Elections happen every year on many different dates in many different areas of the country.

All federal elections (that is, elections for president and vice president as well as elections to the House of Representatives and Senate) are partisan.

Elections to most (but not all) statewide offices are partisan as well, and all state legislatures except for Nebraska are partisan.

Some state and local offices are non-partisan - these often include judicial elections, special district elections (the most common of which are elections to the school board, and elections to municipal (town council, city commission, mayor) and county (county commission, district attorney, sheriff) office.

In some cases, candidates of the same political party challenging each other and in many cases without any campaign references to political parties, while in other cases, even non-partisan races may take on partisan overtones.

Major campaigns in the United States are often much longer than those in other democracies.[citation needed] Campaigns start anywhere from several months to several years before election day.

The first part of any campaign for a candidate is deciding to run.

Prospective candidates will often speak with family, friends, professional associates, elected officials, community leaders, and the leaders of political parties before deciding to run.

Candidates are often recruited by political parties and lobby groups interested in electing like-minded politicians.

During this period, people considering running for office will consider their ability to put together the money, organization, and public image needed to get elected.

Many campaigns for major office do not progress past this point as people often do not feel confident in their ability to win.

However, some candidates lacking the resources needed for a competitive campaign proceed with an inexpensive paper campaign or informational campaign designed to raise public awareness and support for their positions.

Once a person decides to run, they will make a public announcement.

This announcement could consist of anything from a simple press release to concerned media outlets to a major media event followed by a speaking tour.

It is often well known to many people that a candidate will run prior to an announcement being made.

Campaigns will often be announced and then only officially "kicked off" months after active campaigning has begun.

Being coy about whether a candidacy is planned is often a deliberate process by a prospective candidate, either to "test the waters" or to keep the media's attention.

One of the most important aspects of the major American Political campaign is the ability to raise large sums of money, especially early on in the race.

Political insiders and donors often judge candidates based on their ability to raise money.

Not raising enough money early on can lead to problems later as donors are not willing to give funds to candidates they perceive to be losing, a perception based on their poor fundraising performance.

Also during this period, candidates travel around the area they are running in and meet with voters; speaking to them in large crowds, small groups, or even one-on-one.

This allows voters to get a better picture of who a candidate is than that which they read about in the paper or see on television.

Campaigns sometimes launch expensive media campaigns during this time to introduce the candidate to voters, although most wait until closer to election day.

Campaigns often dispatch volunteers into local communities to meet with voters and persuade people to support the candidate.

The volunteers are also responsible for identifying supporters, recruiting them as volunteers or registering them to vote if they are not already registered.

The identification of supporters will be useful later as campaigns remind voters to cast their votes.

Late in the campaign, campaigns will launch expensive television, radio, and direct mail campaigns aimed at persuading voters to support the candidate.

Campaigns will also intensify their grassroots campaigns, coordinating their volunteers in a full court effort to win votes.

Voting in the United States often starts weeks before election day as mail-in ballots are a commonly used voting method.

Campaigns will often run two persuasion programs, one aimed at mail-in voters and one aimed at the more traditional poll voters.

Campaigns for minor office may be relatively simple and inexpensive - talking to local newspapers, giving out campaign signs, and greeting people in the local square.

Political campaigns in the United States are not merely a civic ritual and occasion for political debate, but a multibillion-dollar industry, dominated by professional political consultants using sophisticated campaign management tools, to an extent far greater than elsewhere in the world.

Though the quadrennial presidential election attracts the most attention, the United States has a huge number of elected offices and there is wide variation between different states, counties, and municipalities on which offices are elected and under what procedures.

Moreover, unlike democratic politics in much of the rest of the world, the US has relatively weak parties.

While parties play a significant role in fundraising and occasionally in drafting people to run, campaigns are ultimately controlled by the individual candidates themselves.

American Political campaigns have become heavily reliant on broadcast media and direct mail advertising (typically designed and purchased through specialized consultants).

Though virtually all campaign media are sometimes used at all levels (even candidates for local office have been known to purchase cable TV ads), smaller, lower-budget campaigns are typically more focused on direct mail, low-cost advertising (such as lawn signs), and direct voter contact.

This reliance on expensive advertising is a leading factor behind the rise in the cost of running for office in the United States.

This rising cost is considered by some to discourage those without well-monied connections, or money themselves, from running for office.

Money is raised and spent not only by candidate's campaign, but also by party committees, political action committees, and other groups (in the 2004 election cycle, much controversy has focused on a new category of organization, 527 groups).

This is sometimes done through independent expenditures made in support or opposition of specific candidates but without any candidate's cooperation or approval.

The lack of an overt connection between a candidate and third party groups allows one side of a campaign to attack the other side while avoiding criticism for going negative.

A memorable example are the Swift Boat Veterans who criticized John Kerry in the 2004 Presidential campaign.[16] Many political players and commentators agree that American Political campaigns are currently undergoing a period of change, due to increased use of the internet, which has become a valuable fundraising tool.

This has led to the development of digital marketing, where customers can be targeted by demographic factors such age, location and occupation.

However, as modern technology continues to adapt to changes in society, Internet campaigning will never be able to serve as a complete replacement for traditional political campaigning without reducing the significant barriers to entry.[17] Internet Political campaigning leaves out entire portions of each population because it only is accessible to a certain portion of the population, leaving those without this access disconnected.

For example, during Obama's recent presidential campaign, Internet Political campaigning was supposedly effective at reaching the younger population, as they remain engaged with social websites and new media.[18] Because of the limits of technology, Obama's Internet campaign failed to reach older generations who didn't use this new media, as well as significant amounts of the population who didn't have access.

A forthcoming study in the American Political Science Review found that campaigns have "an average effect of zero in general elections".[19][20] The study found two instances where campaigning was effective: "First, when candidates take unusually unpopular positions and campaigns invest unusually heavily in identifying persuadable voters.

Second, when campaigns contact voters long before election day and measure effects immediately — although this early persuasion decays."[19][20] A large body of political science research emphasizes how "fundamentals" - the state of the economy, whether the country is at war, how long the president's party has held the office, and which candidate is more ideologically moderate - predict presidential election outcomes.[21][22][23][24][25] However, campaigns may be necessary to enlighten otherwise uninformed voters about the fundamentals, which thus become increasingly predictive of preferences as the campaign progresses.[21][26][27][28] Research suggests that "the 2012 presidential campaigns increased turnout in highly targeted states by 7–8 percentage points, on average, indicating that modern campaigns can significantly alter the size and composition of the voting population.".[29] A consensus in the political science literature holds that national conventions usually have a measurable effect on presidential elections that is relatively resistant to decay.[26][27][28] Research is mixed on the precise impact of debates.[26][28][30] Rather than encourage viewers to update their political views in accordance with the most persuasive arguments, viewers instead update their views to merely reflect what their favored candidate is saying.[31] The fundamentals matter less in the outcome of presidential primaries.

One prominent theory holds that the outcome of presidential primaries is largely determined by the preferences of party elites.[32] Presidential primaries are therefore less predictive, as all kinds of events may impact elites' perception of the viability of candidates.

Gaffes, debates and media narratives play a greater role in primaries than in presidential elections.[22][33] Traditional ground campaigning and voter contacts remain the most effective strategies.[29][34] Some research suggests that knocking on doors can increase turnout by as much as 10%[35] and phone calls by as much as 4%.[36] One study suggests that lawn signs increase vote share by 1.7 percentage points.[37] A review of more than 200 get-out-the-vote experiments finds that the most effective tactics are personal: Door-to-door canvassing increases turnout by an average of about 2.5 percentage points; volunteer phone calls raise it by about 1.9 points, compared to 1.0 points for calls from commercial phone banks; automated phone messages are ineffective.[38][39] Each field office that the Obama campaign opened in 2012 gave him approximately a 0.3% greater vote share.[40] The Obama 2008 campaign's use of field most offices has been credited as crucial in winning Indiana and North Carolina.[41] According to one study, the cost per vote by having a field office is $49.40.[41] Using out-of-state volunteers for canvassing is less effective in increasing turnout than using local and trained volunteers.[42][43] Political science research generally finds negative advertisement (which has increased over time)[44] to be ineffective both at reducing the support and turnout for the opponent.[45] According to political scientists Stephen Ansolabehere and Shanto Iyengar, negative ads do succeed at driving down overall turnout though.[46] They also find that "negative ads work better for Republicans than for Democrats, and better for men than for women; unfortunately, negative ads also work better in general than positive ones."[46] Challengers who spend more time campaigning get a higher vote share against incumbents in state house elections.[47] According to political scientist Lynn Vavreck, "the evidence suggests that campaign ads have small effects that decay rapidly — very rapidly — but just enough of the impact accumulates to make running more advertising than your opponent seem a necessity."[48] A 2019 study of online political advertising conducted by a party in the 2016 Berlin state election campaign found that the online-ad campaign "increased the party's vote share by 0.7 percentage points" and that factual ads were more effective than emotional ads.[49] According to political scientists Donald Green and Alan Gerber, it costs $31 to produce a vote going door to door, $91-$137 to produce a vote by sending out direct mailers, $47 per vote from leafletting, $58-$125 per vote from commercial phone banking, and $20-$35 per vote from voluntary phone banking.[50] A 2018 study in the American Economic Review found that door-to-door canvassing on behalf of the Francois Hollande campaign in the 2012 French presidential election "did not affect turnout, but increased Hollande's vote share in the first round and accounted for one fourth of his victory margin in the second.

Visits' impact persisted in later elections, suggesting a lasting persuasion effect."[51] According to a 2018 study, repeated get-out-the-vote phone calls had diminishing effects but each additional phone call increased the probability to vote by 0.6-1.0 percentage points.[52] Another 2018 study found that "party leaflets boost turnout by 4.3 percentage points while canvassing has a small additional effect (0.6 percentage points)" in a United Kingdom election.[53] A 2016 study found that visits by candidate visits to states have modest effects: "visits are most effective in influencing press coverage at the national level and within battleground states.

Visits’ effects on voters themselves, however, are much more modest than consultants often claim, and visits appear to have no effects outside the market that hosts a visit."[54] The authors of the study argue that it would be more effective for campaigns to go to the pockets of the country where wealthy donors are (for fundraising) and hold rallies in the populous states both to attract national press and raise funds.[54] A 2005 study found that campaign visits had no statistically significant effect, after controlling for other factors, on voter turnout in the 1992, 1996, and 2000 elections.[55] On the other hand, a 2017 paper of the 1948 presidential election provides "strong evidence that candidate visits can influence electoral returns".[56] Other research also provides evidence that campaign visits increase vote share.[57] Political campaigns have existed as long as there have been informed citizens to campaign amongst.

Democratic societies have regular election campaigns, but Political campaigning can occur on particular issues even in non-democracies so long as freedom of expression is allowed.

Often mass campaigns are started by the less privileged or anti-establishment viewpoints (as against more powerful interests whose first resort is lobbying).

The phenomenon of Political campaigns are tightly tied to lobby groups and political parties.

The first modern campaign is often described as William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878-80, although there may be earlier recognizably modern examples from the 19th century.

The 1896 William McKinley presidential campaign laid the groundwork for modern campaigns.[58][59] In the 1790-1820s, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party battled it out in the so-called "First Party System".

American election campaigns in the 19th century created the first mass-base political parties and invented many of the techniques of mass campaigning.[citation needed]

Targeted advertising

Targeted advertising is a form of advertising, including online, that is directed towards audiences with certain traits, based on the product or person the advertiser is promoting.[1] These traits can either be demographic which are focused on race, economic status, sex, age, generation, the level of education, income level, and employment or they can be psychographic focused which are based on the consumer's values, personality, attitudes, opinions, lifestyles and interests.[2] They can also be behavioral variables, such as browser history, purchase history, and other recent activity.

Targeted advertising is focused on certain traits and the consumers who are likely to have a strong preference will receive the message instead of those who have no interest and whose preferences do not match a product's attribute.

This eliminates waste.[3] Traditional forms of advertising, including billboards, newspapers, magazines, and radio, are progressively becoming replaced by online advertisements.[4] Information and communication technology (ICT) space has transformed over recent years, resulting in Targeted advertising to stretch across all ICT technologies, such as web, IPTV, and mobile environments.

In next generation advertising, the importance of targeted advertisements will radically increase, as it spreads across numerous ICT channels cohesively.[5] Through the emergence of new online channels, the need for Targeted advertising is increasing because companies aim to minimize wasted advertising by means of information technology.[4] Most targeted new media advertising currently uses second-order proxies for targets, such as tracking online or mobile web activities of consumers, associating historical web page consumer demographics with new consumer web page access, using a search word as the basis for implied interest, or contextual advertising.[6] Web services are continually generating new business ventures and revenue opportunities for internet corporations.

Companies have rapidly developed technological capabilities that allow them to gather information about web users.[4] By tracking and monitoring what websites users visit, internet service providers can directly show ads that are relative to the consumer's preferences.

Most of today's websites are using these targeting technologies to track users' internet behavior and there is much debate over the privacy issues present.[5] Search engine marketing uses search engines to reach target audiences.

For example, Google's Google Remarketing Campaigns are a type of Targeted advertising where websites use the IP addresses of computers that have visited their websites to remarket their ad specifically to the user who has previously been on their website as they use websites that are a part of the Google display network, or when searching for keywords related to a product or service on the google search engine.[7] Dynamic remarketing can improve the Targeted advertising as the ads are able to include the products or services that the consumers have previously viewed on the advertisers' website within the ads.[8] Google Adwords have different platforms how the ads appear.

The Search Network displays the ads on 'Google Search, other Google sites such as Maps and Shopping, and hundreds of non-Google search partner websites that show AdWords ads matched to search results'.[8] 'The Display Network includes a collection of Google websites (like Google Finance, Gmail, Blogger, and YouTube), partner sites, and mobile sites and apps that show AdWords ads matched to the content on a given page.'[8] These two kinds of Advertising networks can be beneficial for each specific goal of the company, or type of company.

For example, the search network can benefit a company with the goal of reaching consumers searching for a particular product or service.

Other ways Advertising campaigns are able to target the user is to use browser history and search history, for example, if the user typed in promotional pens in a search engine, such as Google; ads for promotional pens will appear at the top of the page above the organic pages, these ads will be targeted to the area of the users IP address, showing the product or service in the local area or surrounding regions, the higher ad position is a benefit of the ad having a higher quality score.[9] The ad quality is affected by the 5 components of the quality score: When ranked based on these criteria, it will affect the advertiser by improving ad auction eligibility, actual cost per click (CPC), ad position, and ad position bid estimates; to summarise, the better the quality score, the better ad position, and lower costs.

Google uses its display network to track what users are looking at and to gather information about them.

When a user goes onto a website that uses the google display network it will send a cookie to Google, showing information on the user, what he or she searched, where they are from, found by the IP address, and then builds a profile around them, allowing google to easily target ads to the user more specifically.

For example, if a user went onto promotional companies' websites often, that sell promotional pens, Google will gather data from the user such as age, gender, location, and other demographic information as well as information on the websites visited, the user will then be put into a category of promotional products, allowing Google to easily display ads on websites the user visits relating to promotional products.[10] these types of adverts are also called behavioral advertisements as they track the website behavior of the user and displays ads based on previous pages or searched terms.

("Examples Of Targeted advertising") Social media targeting is a form of Targeted advertising, that uses general targeting attributes such as geotargeting, behavioral targeting, socio-psychographic targeting, and gathers the information that consumers have provided on each social media platform.

According to the media users' view history, customers who are interested in the stuff will be automatically targeted by the advertisements of certain products or service.[11] For example, on Facebook, if a consumer has liked clothing pages they will receive ads based on those page likes and the area they have said they live in, this allows advertisers to target very specific consumers as they can specify cities and interests to their needs.

Social media also creates profiles of the consumer and only needs to look at one place, one the users' profile to find all interests and 'likes'.

E.g.

Facebook lets advertisers target using broad characteristics like Gender, Age, and Location.

Furthermore, they allow more narrow targeting based on Demographics, Behavior, and Interests (see a comprehensive list of Facebook's different types of targeting options[12]).

Advertisements can be targeted to specific consumers watching digital cable[13] or over-the-top video.[14] Targeting can be done according to age, gender, location, or personal interests in films, etc.[15] Cable box addresses can be cross-referenced with information from data brokers like Acxiom, Equifax, and Experian, including information about marriage, education, criminal record, and credit history.

Political campaigns may also match against public records such as party affiliation and which elections and party primaries the view has voted in.[14] Since the early 2000s, advertising has been pervasive online and more recently in the mobile setting.

Targeted advertising based on mobile devices allows more information about the consumer to be transmitted, not just their interests, but their information about their location and time.[16] This allows advertisers to produce advertisements that could cater to their schedule and a more specific changing environment.

The most straightforward method of targeting is content/contextual targeting.

This is when advertisers put ads in a specific place, based on the relative content present.[5] Another name used is content-oriented advertising, as it is corresponding to the context being consumed.

This targeting method can be used across different mediums, for example in an article online, purchasing homes would have an advert associated with this context, like an insurance ad.

This is usually achieved through an ad matching system which analyses the contents on a page or finds keywords and presents a relevant advert, sometimes through pop-ups.[17] Though sometimes the ad matching system can fail, as it can neglect to tell the difference between positive and negative correlations.

This can result in placing contradictory adverts, which are not appropriate to the content.[17] Technical targeting is associated with the user's own software or hardware status.

The advertisement is altered depending on the user's available network bandwidth, for example, if a user is on their mobile phone that has limited connection, the ad delivery system will display a version of the ad that is smaller for a faster data transfer rate.[5] Addressable advertising systems serve ads directly based on demographic, psychographic, or behavioral attributes associated with the consumer(s) exposed to the ad.

These systems are always digital and must be addressable in that the endpoint which serves the ad (set-top box, website, or digital sign) must be capable of rendering an ad independently of any other endpoints based on consumer attributes specific to that endpoint at the time the ad is served.

Addressable advertising systems, therefore, must use consumer traits associated with the endpoints as the basis for selecting and serving ads.[18] According to the journal of marketing, more than 1.8 billion clients spent a minimum of 118 minutes daily- via web-based networking media in 2016.[19] Nearly 77% of these clients interact with the content through likes, commenting, and clicking on links related to content.

With this astounding buyer trend, it is important for advertisers to choose the right time to schedule content, in order to maximize advertising efficiency.

To accurately determine what time of day is most effective for scheduling content.

It is essential to know when the brain is most effective at retaining memory.

Research in Chrono psychology has credited that time-of-day impacts diurnal variety in a person's working memory accessibility and has discovered the enactment of inhibitory.

procedures to build working memory effectiveness during times of low working memory accessibility.

Working memory is a "cerebrum framework that gives brief stockpiling and control of the data essential for such complex subjective undertakings as language perception, learning, and thinking" (Baddeley 1992, p.

556).

Providing us with the vital capacities of putting away, recovering, and preparing quick data.

For a great many people, working memory accessibility is most noteworthy when they get up toward the beginning of the day, most reduced in mid-evening, and moderate at night (Lupien et al.

2005).

Sociodemographic targeting focuses on the characteristics of consumers, including their age, generation, gender, salary and nationality.[5] The idea is to target users specifically, using this data about them collected, for example, targeting a male in the age bracket of 18–24.

Facebook uses this form of targeting by showing advertisements relevant to the user's individual demographic on their account, this can show up in forms of banner ads, or commercial videos.[20] This type of advertising involves targeting different users based on their geographic location.

IP addresses can signal the location of a user and can usually transfer the location through ZIP codes.[5] Locations are then stored for users in static profiles, thus advertisers can easily target these individuals based on their geographic location.

A location-based service (LBS) is a mobile information service which allows spatial and temporal data transmission and can be used to an advertiser's advantage.[21] This data can be harnessed from applications on the device that allow access to the location information.[22] This type of Targeted advertising focuses on localizing content, for example, a user could be prompted with options of activities in the area, for example, places to eat, nearby shops, etc.

Although producing advertising off consumer's location-based services can improve the effectiveness of delivering ads, it can raise issues with the user's privacy.[23] Behavioral targeting is centered around the activity/actions of users, and is more easily achieved on web pages.[24][25] Information from browsing websites can be collected from data mining, which finds patterns in users search history.

Advertisers using this method believe it produces ads that will be more relevant to users, thus leading consumers be more likely influenced by them.[26] If a consumer was frequently searching for plane ticket prices, the targeting system would recognise this and start showing related adverts across unrelated websites, such as airfare deals on Facebook.

Its advantage is that it can target individual's interests, rather than target groups of people whose interests may vary.[5] When a consumer visits a web site, the pages they visit, the amount of time they view each page, the links they click on, the searches they make, and the things that they interact with, allow sites to collect that data, and other factors, to create a 'profile' that links to that visitor's web browser.

As a result, site publishers can use this data to create defined audience segments based upon visitors that have similar profiles.

When visitors return to a specific site or a network of sites using the same web browser, those profiles can be used to allow marketers and advertisers to position their online ads and messaging in front of those visitors who exhibit a greater level of interest and intent for the products and services being offered.

Behavioral targeting has emerged as one of the main technologies used to increase the efficiency and profits of digital marketing and advertisements, as media providers are able to provide individual users with highly relevant advertisements.

On the theory that properly targeted ads and messaging will fetch more consumer interest, publishers can charge a premium for behaviorally targeted ads and marketers can achieve Behavioral marketing can be used on its own or in conjunction with other forms of targeting,[12]) Many practitioners also refer to this process as "audience targeting".

Major advantages of Behavioral marketing are that it will help in reaching surfers with affinity, reach surfers that were not exposed to a media campaign, contact surfers close to conversion and in reconnecting with prospects or customers.

Behavioral targeting may also be applied to any online property on the premise that it either improves the visitor experience or benefits the online property, typically through increased conversion rates or increased spending levels.

The early adopters of this technology/philosophy were editorial sites such as HotWired,[27][28] online advertising[29] with leading online ad servers,[30] retail or other e-commerce website as a technique for increasing the relevance of product offers and promotions on a visitor by visitor basis.

More recently, companies outside this traditional e-commerce marketplace have started to experiment with these emerging technologies.

The typical approach to this starts by using web analytics or behavioral analytics to break-down the range of all visitors into a number of discrete channels.

Each channel is then analyzed and a virtual profile is created to deal with each channel.

These profiles can be based around Personas that gives the website operators a starting point in terms of deciding what content, navigation and layout to show to each of the different personas.

When it comes to the practical problem of successfully delivering the profiles correctly this is usually achieved by either using a specialist content behavioral platform or by bespoke software development.

Most platforms identify visitors by assigning a unique ID cookie to each and every visitor to the site thereby allowing them to be tracked throughout their web journey, the platform then makes a rules-based decision about what content to serve.

Self-learning onsite behavioral targeting systems will monitor visitor response to site content and learn what is most likely to generate a desired conversion event.

Some good content for each behavioral trait or pattern is often established using numerous simultaneous multivariate tests.

Onsite behavioral targeting requires a relatively high level of traffic before statistical confidence levels can be reached regarding the probability of a particular offer generating a conversion from a user with a set behavioral profile.

Some providers have been able to do so by leveraging its large user base, such as Yahoo!.

Some providers use a rules-based approach, allowing administrators to set the content and offers shown to those with particular traits.

Advertising networks use behavioral targeting in a different way than individual sites.

Since they serve many advertisements across many different sites, they are able to build up a picture of the likely demographic makeup of internet users.[31] Data from a visit to one website can be sent to many different companies, including Microsoft and Google subsidiaries, Facebook, Yahoo, many traffic-logging sites, and smaller ad firms.[32] This data can sometimes be sent to more than 100 websites, and shared with business partners, advertisers, and other third parties for business purposes.

The data is collected using cookies, web beacons and similar technologies, and/or a third-party ad serving software, to automatically collect information about site users and site activity.

Some servers even record the page that referred you to them, websites you visit after them, which ads you see and which ads you click on.[33] Online advertising uses cookies, a tool used specifically to identify users, as a means of delivering Targeted advertising by monitoring the actions of a user on the website.

For this purpose, the cookies used are called tracking cookies.

An ad network company such as Google uses cookies to deliver advertisements that are relevant to the interests of the user, control the number of times that the user sees an ad and "measure" whether they are advertising the specific product to the customer's preferences.[34] This data is collected without attaching the people's names, address, email address or telephone number, but it may include device identifying information such as the IP address, MAC address, cookie or other device-specific unique alphanumerical ID of your computer, but some stores may create guest IDs to go along with the data.

Cookies are used to control displayed ads and to track browsing activity and usage patterns on sites.

This data is used by companies to infer people's age, gender, and possible purchase interests so that they could make customized ads that you would be more likely to click on.[35] An example would be a user seen on football sites, business sites, and male fashion sites.

A reasonable guess would be to assume the user is male.

Demographic analyses of individual sites provided either internally (user surveys) or externally (Comscore \ Netratings) allow the networks to sell audiences rather than sites.[36] Although advertising networks were used to sell this product, this was based on picking the sites where the audiences were.

Behavioral targeting allows them to be slightly more specific about this.

In the work titled An Economic Analysis of Online Advertising Using Behavioral Targeting,[25] Chen and Stallaert (2014) study the economic implications when an online publisher engages in behavioral targeting.

They consider that the publisher auctions off an advertising slot and are paid on a cost-per-click basis.

Chen and Stallaert (2014) identify the factors that affect the publisher's revenue, the advertisers' payoffs, and social welfare.

They show that revenue for the online publisher in some circumstances can double when behavioral targeting is used.

Increased revenue for the publisher is not guaranteed: in some cases, the prices of advertising and hence the publisher's revenue can be lower, depending on the degree of competition and the advertisers' valuations.

They identify two effects associated with behavioral targeting: a competitive effect and a propensity effect.

The relative strength of the two effects determines whether the publisher's revenue is positively or negatively affected.

Chen and Stallaert (2014) also demonstrate that, although social welfare is increased and small advertisers are better off under behavioral targeting, the dominant advertiser might be worse off and reluctant to switch from traditional advertising.

In 2006, BlueLithium (now Yahoo! Advertising) in a large online study, examined the effects of behavior targeted advertisements based on contextual content.

The study used 400 million "impressions", or advertisements conveyed across behavioral and contextual borders.

Specifically, nine behavioral categories (such as "shoppers" or "travelers"[37])with over 10 million "impressions" were observed for patterns across the content.[38] All measures for the study were taken in terms of click-through rates (CTR) and "action-through rates" (ATR), or conversions.

So, for every impression that someone gets, the number of times they "click-through" to it will contribute to CTR data, and every time they go through with or convert on the advertisement the user adds "action-through" data.

Results from the study show that advertisers looking for traffic on their advertisements should focus on behavioral targeting in context.

Likewise, if they are looking for conversions on the advertisements, behavioral targeting out of context is the most effective process.[37] The data was helpful in determining an "across-the-board rule of thumb";[37] however, results fluctuated widely by content categories.

Overall results from the researchers indicate that the effectiveness of behavioral targeting is dependent on the goals of the advertiser and the primary target market the advertiser is trying to reach.

Many online users and advocacy groups are concerned about privacy issues around this type of targeting since Targeted advertising requires aggregation of large amounts of personal data, including highly sensitive one (such as sexual orientation or sexual preferences, health issues, location) which is then traded between hundreds of parties in the process of real-time bidding.[39][40] Obscure to a great many people, individual data are exchanged without the consent of the proprietors.

Essentially, it is an obtrusive rupture of protection to profit from the unregulated exchange of individual data.

However simultaneously, individual data, particularly the ones that are identified with intrigue and propensity, are a basic segment for conveying web-based promoting, which is the help of numerous sites.

This is a controversy that the behavioral targeting industry is trying to contain through education, advocacy and product constraints in order to keep all information non-personally identifiable or to obtain permission from end-users.[41] AOL created animated cartoons in 2008 to explain to its users that their past actions may determine the content of ads they see in the future.[42] Canadian academics at the University of Ottawa Canadian Internet Policy and Public Interest Clinic have recently demanded the federal privacy commissioner to investigate online profiling of Internet users for Targeted advertising.[43] The European Commission (via commissioner Meglena Kuneva) has also raised a number of concerns related to online data collection (of personal data), profiling and behavioral targeting, and is looking for "enforcing existing regulation".[44] In October 2009 it was reported that a recent survey carried out by University of Pennsylvania and the Berkeley Center for Law and Technology found that a large majority of US internet users rejected the use of behavioral advertising.[45] Several research efforts by academics and others have demonstrated that data that is supposedly anonymized can be used to identify real individuals.[46] In December 2010, online tracking firm Quantcast agreed to pay $2.4M to settle a class-action lawsuit for their use of 'zombie' cookies to track consumers.

These zombie cookies, which were on partner sites such as MTV, Hulu, and ESPN, would re-generate to continue tracking the user even if they were deleted.[47] Other uses of such technology include Facebook, and their use of the Facebook Beacon to track users across the internet, to later use for more Targeted advertising.[48] Tracking mechanisms without consumer consent are generally frowned upon; however, tracking of consumer behavior online or on mobile devices are key to digital advertising, which is the financial backbone to most of the internet.

In March 2011, it was reported that the online ad industry would begin working with the Council of Better Business Bureaus to start policing itself as part of its program to monitor and regulate how marketers track consumers online, also known as behavioral advertising.[49] Retargeting is where advertisers use behavioral targeting to produce ads that follow users after users have looked at or purchased a particular item.

An example of this is store catalogs, where stores subscribe customers to their email system after a purchase hoping that they draw attention to more items for continuous purchases.

The main example of retargeting that has earned a reputation from most people is ads that follow users across the web, showing them the same items that they have looked at in the hope that they will purchase them.

Retargeting is a very effective process; by analysing consumers activities with the brand they can address their consumers' behavior appropriately.[50] Advertising provides advertisers with a direct line of communication to existing and prospective consumers.

By using a combination of words and/or pictures the general aim of the advertisement is to act as a "medium of information" (David Oglivy[51]) making the means of delivery and to whom the information is delivered most important.

Advertising should define how and when structural elements of advertisements influence receivers, knowing that all receivers are not the same and thus may not respond in a single, similar manner.[52] Targeted advertising serves the purpose of placing particular advertisements before specific groups so as to reach consumers who would be interested in the information.

Advertisers aim to reach consumers as efficiently as possible with the belief that it will result in a more effective campaign.

By targeting, advertisers are able to identify when and where the ad should be positioned in order to achieve maximum profits.

This requires an understanding of how customers' minds work (see also neuromarketing) so as to determine the best channel by which to communicate.

Types of targeting include, but are not limited to advertising based on demographics, psychographics, behavioral variables and contextual targeting.

Behavioral advertising is the most common form of targeting used online.

Internet cookies are sent back and forth between an internet server and the browser, that allows a user to be identified or to track their progressions.

Cookies provide detail on what pages a consumer visits, the amount of time spent viewing each page, the links clicked on; and searches and interactions made.

From this information, the cookie issuer gathers an understanding of the user's browsing tendencies and interests generating a profile.

Analyzing the profile, advertisers are able to create defined audience segments based upon users with similar returned similar information, hence profiles.

Tailored advertising is then placed in front of the consumer based upon what organizations working on behalf of the advertisers assume are the interests of the consumer.[53] These advertisements have been formatted so as to appear on pages and in front of users that it would most likely appeal to based on their profiles.

For example, under behavioral targeting, if a user is known to have recently visited a number of automotive shopping and comparison sites based on the data recorded by cookies stored on the user's computer, the user can then be served automotive-related advertisements when visiting other sites.[54] So behavioral advertising is reliant on data both wittingly and unwittingly provided by users and is made up of two different forms: one involving the delivery of advertising based on assessment of user's web movements; the second involving the examination of communication and information as it passes through the gateways of internet service providers.

Demographic targeting was the first and most basic form of targeting used online.

involves segmenting an audience into more specific groups using parameters such as gender, age, ethnicity, annual income, parental status etc.

All members of the group share a common trait.

So, when an advertiser wishes to run a campaign aimed at a specific group of people then that campaign is intended only for the group that contains those traits at which the campaign is targeted.

Having finalized the advertiser's demographic target, a website or a website section is chosen as a medium because a large proportion of the targeted audience utilizes that form of media.

Segmentation using psychographics Is based on an individual's personality, values, interests and lifestyles.

A recent study concerning what forms of media people use- conducted by the Entertainment Technology Center at the University of Southern California, the Hallmark Channel, and E-Poll Market Research- concludes that a better predictor of media usage is the user's lifestyle.

Researchers concluded that while cohorts of these groups may have similar demographic profiles, they may have different attitudes and media usage habits.[55] Psychographics can provide further insight by distinguishing an audience into specific groups by using their personal traits.

Once acknowledging this is the case, advertisers can begin to target customers having recognized that factors other than age for example provides greater insight into the customer.

Contextual advertising is a strategy to place advertisements on media vehicles, such as specific websites or print magazines, whose themes are relevant to the promoted products.[56]:2 Advertisers apply this strategy in order to narrow-target their audiences.[57][56] Advertisements are selected and served by automated systems based on the identity of the user and the displayed content of the media.

The advertisements will be displayed across the user's different platforms and are chosen based on searches for keywords; appearing as either a web page or pop up ads.

It is a form of Targeted advertising in which the content of an ad is in direct correlation to the content of the webpage the user is viewing.

Every brand, service or product has itself a personality, how it is viewed by the public and the community and marketers will create these personalities to match the personality traits of their target market.[2] Marketers and advertisers create these personalities because when a consumer can relate to the characteristics of a brand, service or product they are more likely to feel connected towards the product and purchase it.[citation needed] Everyone is different and advertisers compensate for this, they know different people lead different lives, have different lifestyles and different wants and needs at different times in their consumer's lives.[58] Advertisers who base their segmentation on psychographic characteristics promote their product as the solution to these wants and needs.

Segmentation by lifestyle considers where the consumer is in their life cycle and what is important to them at that exact time.

Psychographic segmentation also includes opinions on religion, gender and politics, sporting and recreational activities, views on the environment and arts and cultural issues.

The views that the market segments hold and the activities they participate in will have a massive impact on the products and services they purchase and it will even affect how they respond to the message.

Alternatives to behavioral advertising and psychographic targeting include geographic targeting and demographic targeting When advertisers want to reach as many consumers as efficiently as possible they use a six-step process.

The last step is vital for an advertiser as they need to measure the return on the investment (ROI) there are multiple ways to measure performance, these can be tracking web traffic, sales lead quality, and/ or social media sharing.

Alternatives to behavioral advertising include audience targeting, contextual targeting, and psychographic[59] targeting.

Targeting improves the effectiveness of advertising it reduces the wastage created by sending advertising to consumers who are unlikely to purchase that product, target advertising or improved targeting will lead to lower advertising costs and expenditures.[3] The effects of advertising on society and those targeted are all implicitly underpinned by consideration of whether advertising compromises autonomous choice.[60] Those arguing for the ethical acceptability of advertising claim either that, because of the commercially competitive context of advertising, the consumer has a choice over what to accept and what to reject.

Humans have the cognitive competence and are equipped with the necessary faculties to decide whether to be affected by adverts.[61] Those arguing against note, for example, that advertising can make us buy things we do not want or that, as advertising is enmeshed in a capitalist system, it only presents choices based on consumerist-centered reality thus limiting the exposure to non-materialist lifestyles.

Although the effects of target advertising are mainly focused on those targeted it also has an effect on those not targeted.

Its unintended audiences often view an advertisement targeted at other groups and start forming judgments and decisions regarding the advertisement and even the brand and company behind the advertisement, these judgments may affect future consumer behavior.[62] The Network Advertising Initiative conducted a study[63] in 2009 measuring the pricing and effectiveness of Targeted advertising.

It revealed that Targeted advertising: However, other studies show that Targeted advertising, at least by gender,[2] is not effective.

One of the major difficulties in measuring the economic efficiency of targeting, however, is being able to observe what would have happened in the absence of targeting since the users targeted by advertisers are more likely to convert than the general population.

Farahat and Bailey [64] exploit a large-scale natural experiment on Yahoo! allowing them to measure the true economic impact of Targeted advertising on brand searches and clicks.

They find, assuming the cost per 1000 ad impressions (CPM) is $1, that: Research shows that Content marketing in 2015 generates 3 times as many leads as traditional outbound marketing, but costs 62% less[65] showing how being able to advertise to targeted consumers is becoming the ideal way to advertise to the public.

As other stats show how 86% of people skip television adverts and 44% of people ignore direct mail, which also displays how advertising to the wrong group of people can be a waste of resources.[65] There are many benefits of Targeted advertising for both consumers and advertisers: Targeted advertising benefits consumers because advertisers are able to effectively attract consumers by using their purchasing and browsing habits this enables ads to be more apparent and useful for customers.

Having ads that are related to the interests of the consumers allow the message to be received in a direct manner through effective touchpoints.

An example of how Targeted advertising is beneficial to consumers if that if someone sees an ad targeted to them for something similar to an item they have previously viewed online and were interested in, they are more likely to buy it.

Consumers can benefit from Targeted advertising in the following ways: Advertisers benefit with target advertising are reduced resource costs and creation of more effective ads by attracting consumers with a strong appeal to these products.

Targeted advertising allows advertisers in reduced cost of advertisement by minimizing "wasted" advertisements to non-interested consumers.

Targeted advertising captivate the attention of consumers they were aimed at resulting in higher return on investment for the company.

Because behavioral advertising enables advertisers to more easily determine user preference and purchasing habit, the ads will be more pertinent and useful for consumers.

By creating a more efficient and effective manner of advertising to the consumer, an advertiser benefits greatly and in the following ways: Using information from consumers can benefit the advertiser by developing a more efficient campaign, Targeted advertising is proven to work both effectively and efficiently.[67] They don't want to waste time and money advertising to the "wrong people".[3] Through technological advances, the internet has allowed advertisers to target consumers beyond the capabilities of traditional media, and target significantly larger amount.[68] The main advantage of using Targeted advertising is how it can help minimize wasted advertising by using detailed information about individuals who are intended for a product.[69] If consumers are produced these ads that are targeted for them, it is more likely they will be interested and click on them.

'Know thy consumer', is a simple principle used by advertisers, when businesses know information about consumers, it can be easier to target them and get them to purchase their product.

Some consumers do not mind if their information is used, and are more accepting to ads with easily accessible links.

This is because they may appreciate adverts tailored to their preferences, rather than just generic ads.

They are more likely to be directed to products they want, and possibly purchase them, in return generating more income for the business advertising.

Targeted advertising raises privacy concerns.

Targeted advertising is performed by analyzing consumers' activities through online services such as cookies and data-mining, both of which can be seen as detrimental to consumers' privacy.

Marketers research consumers' online activity for Targeted advertising campaigns like programmatic and SEO.

Consumers' privacy concerns revolve around today's unprecedented tracking capabilities and whether to trust their trackers.

Targeted advertising aims to increase promotions' relevance to potential buyers, delivering ad campaign executions to specified consumers at critical stages in the buying decision process.

This potentially limits a consumer's awareness of alternatives and reinforces selective exposure.

Targeting advertising is not a process performed overnight, it takes time and effort to analyze the behavior of consumers.

This results in more expenses than the traditional advertising processes.

As Targeted advertising is seen more effective this is not always a disadvantage but there are cases where advertisers have not received the profit expected.

Targeted advertising has a limited reach to consumers, advertisers are not always aware that consumers change their minds and purchases which will no longer mean ads are apparent to them.

Another disadvantage is that while using Cookies to track activity advertisers are unable to depict whether 1 or more consumers are using the same computer.

This is apparent in family homes where multiple people from a broad age range are using the same device.

Targeted advertising has raised controversies, most particularly towards the privacy rights and policies.

With behavioral targeting focusing in on specific user actions such as site history, browsing history, and buying behavior, this has raised user concern that all activity is being tracked.

Privacy International is a UK based registered charity that defends and promotes the right to privacy across the world.

This organization is fighting in order to make Governments legislate in a way that protects the rights of the general public.

According to them, from any ethical standpoint such interception of web traffic must be conditional on the basis of explicit and informed consent.

And action must be taken where organizations can be shown to have acted unlawfully.

A survey conducted in the United States by the Pew Internet & American Life Project between January 20 and February 19, 2012 revealed that most of Americans are not in favor of Targeted advertising, seeing it as an invasion of privacy.

Indeed, 68% of those surveyed said they are "not okay" with Targeted advertising because they do not like having their online behavior tracked and analyzed.

Another issue with Targeted advertising is the lack of 'new' advertisements of goods or services.

Seeing as all ads are tailored to be based on user preferences, no different products will be introduced to the consumer.

Hence, in this case the consumer will be at a loss as they are not exposed to anything new.

Advertisers concentrate their resources on the consumer, which can be very effective when done right.[70] When advertising doesn't work, consumer can find this creepy and start wondering how the advertiser learnt the information about them.[20] Consumers can have concerns over ads targeted at them, which are basically too personal for comfort, feeling a need for control over their own data.[71] In Targeted advertising privacy is a complicated issue due to the type of protected user information and the number of parties involved.

The three main parties involved in online advertising are the advertiser, the publisher, and the network.

People tend to want to keep their previously browsed websites private, although users 'clickstreams' are being transferred to advertisers who work with ad networks.

The user's preferences and interests are visible through their clickstream and their behavioral profile is generated.[72] Many find this form of advertising to be concerning and see these tactics as manipulative and a sense of discrimination.[72] As a result of this, a number of methods have been introduced in order to avoid advertising.[4] Internet users employing ad blockers are rapidly growing in numbers.

The average global ad-blocking[73] rate in early 2018 was estimated at 27 percent.

Greece is at the top of the list with more than 40% of internet users admit to using ad-blocking software.

Article marketing

Article marketing is a branch of content marketing.

It is a type of advertising in which companies write and distribute short articles to a range of outlets such as article banks, forums, and newsletter publishers.

Its main purpose is to gain a huge number of online audiences and boost the number of sales opportunities for products or services on websites.

Another main purpose of this kind of marketing is to build backlinks.

This type of marketing strategy can help marketers acquire new visitors and increase sales on their websites.

Article marketing is also one of the least costly ways to market a company.[1] There are many advantages of using Article marketing such as: While there are lots of advantages to using Article marketing, there are some downsides as well: Article marketing has been used by professionals for nearly as long as mass print has been available.

Business provides the content to a newspaper, possibly on a timely topic such as an article on tax audits during tax season, and the newspaper may use the article and include the business's name and contact information.

Newspapers and other traditional media have limited budgets for gathering content and these articles may be used in the business section of the newspaper.

Traditional Article marketing is advertising a company’s article through the use of magazines, newspapers and any print media.

(Daniels, 2013).

This way of marketing has been going on for a really long time but it is still very much useful and still in style to this day.

It still produces results in offline establishments.

The method of doing the traditional Article marketing is very straightforward.

The company will choose a print media business they want to work with and discuss the conditions of the article they want to produce.

Once the article has been written, the print media will then print and publish it.

Both companies will benefit from this project.

The print media company will have content to print and the business will gain exposure for their products and/or services.

(Ekanem, 2015).

Internet Article marketing is used to promote the authors' expertise of their market, products or services online via article directories.

Article directories with good web page ranks receive a lot of site visitors and may be considered authority sites by search engines, leading to high traffic.

These directories then give PageRank to the author's website and in addition send traffic from readers.

Articles and article directories attract search engines because of their rich content.

This practice may have been effective in the past, however, changes in Google's algorithms over the years have negated the benefits one would have received from this practice.

Both Google's Webmaster Guidelines and comments by Google's Head of Webspam, Matt Cutts discouraged, if not outright prohibit, the strategy of using article directory marketing as a means to build backlinks.[2][3] Business Owners, Marketers and Entrepreneurs attempt to maximize the results of an article advertising campaign by submitting their articles to a number of article directories.

However, most of the major search engines filter duplicate content to stop the identical content material from being returned multiple times in a search engine results page.

Some marketers attempt to circumvent this filter by creating a number of variations of an article, known as article spinning.

By doing this, one article can theoretically acquire site visitors from a number of article directories.

Most forms of search engine optimization and internet marketing require a domain, internet hosting plan, and promoting budget.

However, Article marketing makes use of article directories as a free host and receives traffic by way of organic searches due to the listing's search engine authority.

The primary goal behind Article marketing is to get search engine traffic to the article so that the author can strengthen their authority and influence within their field, while also leveraging that traffic for their own site(s).

The key to Article marketing is that the author should be providing value with their articles, not just promoting their site, products or services.

Article marketing has changed as companies have moved from targeting article directories such as Ezinearticles.com or eHow.com, to micro-targeting small audiences using Facebook and Twitter.[4] Article marketing used to have a much broader target audience but companies have switched to more finite groups of consumers.[5] The change happened because companies found that improving article quality and targeting a better audience was much more effective.[6] Part of this is due to the face that, as of March 2017 the internet has over 3.74 billion users.[7] Having such a massive market makes it hard to find the right customers, which caused companies using Article marketing to shrink their scope and search for smaller audiences.

Article marketing is used to advertise cheaply.

It is common for articles to get picked up by search engines, which allows for additional attention to a companies website.[8] Article marketing is also very easy to perform and a great first step for a new business, which makes it very popular among small businesses.[5] Article marketing has become so popular that many websites now have articles which teach easy steps on how to write your own marketing article to gain views from the public.[5] Gaining views and attention to a website is important because websites gaining more traffic have a higher chance of getting purchases from the website according to statistics.

Even if a website does not sell as many products on the website, the traffic a company gains will make the website more valuable.

This will result in other companies seeking to pay for use of the website space for advertisements because of the larger amount of traffic the website receives.

Article marketing has also moved into phone and tablet applications also known as apps.

App advertising is a very effective form of advertising, Milton Brown performed a study that people were twice as likely to purchase on their mobile phone when they see a Snapchat (a prominent phone app) advertisement.[9] He also found that 92% of campaigns saw clear results after advertising on Snapchat.[9] Because of this rising popularity of cheap/free advertisement on Apps companies have backlashed on Article marketing since it is flooding applications.[10] Facebook started banning Article marketing and other types of free advertisements in 2018 by increasing their prices and forcing free article evaluations to be stopped.[10]

postcard marketing cost effective tool

Are you looking for a cost effective marketing solution? Do you want to be visible in the eye of your customers? But short of budget doesn�t allow you that visibility.

Let me tell you one cost effective way to market your business that really works.

I am talking about postcard marketing.

A cost effective solution of marketing, it�s a very affordable way to go.Are you looking for a cost effective marketing solution? Do you want to be visible in the eye of your customers? But short of budget doesn�t allow you that visibility.

Let me tell you one cost effective way to market your business that really works.

I am talking about postcard marketing.

A cost effective solution of marketing, it�s a very affordable way to go.

One of the best advantages of this kind of marketing is that you can design postcards yourself.

If you don�t have time to do yourself you can hire a professional for this task.

You should print cards on 67# card stock to meet USPS conditions.

You can make two or four cards 8 ½” x 11” sheet so use a paper cutter to separate them.

You can get postage for each postcard for just 23 cents.

Ways to use postcards:Referrals Send postcards to your best contacts periodically that ask for referrals on a regular basis.

This way you can promote your business products and services to number of consumers.

Announce EventsSend postcards to your target audience to know about business events such as, seminar, sales, open houses, classes etc.

Announcement of an event can encourage your customers to learn more about you.ProspectingYou should send a series of postcard mailings to your target audience to soften them up.

It would be a great way to send regular mailing to identify prospects before you contact them on the phone.Generate website trafficYou should use postcard mailings to tell people about your website, store, products and services.

When you make any significant additions to your business update your consumers as well.

Newsletter subscriber listYou can publicize your newsletter to a new audience through postcard mailings.Make an offer with postcardIn order to get more positive response from your consumer you should offer them special discounts, rewards and contests.

Say ThanksYou can use postcards to say thanks for business, information, or referrals.

Obviously, you need a good in house mailing list for better results.

Be sure, right people are receiving your mailings.

You can get better response if postcard has any discount offer for your consumer.

Do repeat the postcard marketing again and again.

Single mailing can give you disappointing results at the end of the day.

Average response rate from postcard marketing is the 1-3% but you can generate significant sales from this response rate.�

cost effective ways to get your business name out there

There are many cost-effective marketing materials you can use today that will help you get your name out there while inspiring credibility and loyalty.

Successful business owners understand that marketing is the key to a profitable business.

It is the lifeblood that sustains their source of income in order to keep it afloat.

Without marketing no one would know about you and your business, and no one would buy your products or services.

Understand though that marketing is more than getting your name out their.

It is also about getting your name and your business respected in the market.

It�s important that you position yourself as an expert to generate trust and loyalty.

You need to be able to inspire your target audience to turn to you for answers and solutions.Fortunately, there are several cost-effective marketing materials you can use today that will help you get your name out there while inspiring credibility and loyalty.

Here are some of them:1- Calendars � They are simple materials but are effective in keeping your business visible for an entire year.

The key to a successful promotional calendar is to make sure that the calendar templates are designed using the best and most appropriate elements.

The color, font, and paper choice should be ideal so you are assured that the material will last a long time.

Each business aims for long market exposure.

If you can make your calendars impressive, you can be sure to achieve that.2- Business cards � This is a standard for all businesses.

Despite modern advancements in marketing, businesses should still have their business cards ready at hand.

Aim for a stand out card design so people will easily remember you.

Have them with you all the time so you can hand them out immediately when needed.3- Newsletters � Constantly update your customers with what is happening in your business through newsletters.

Tell them your latest products or services or your upcoming events and promos.

If you think printing newsletters on a constant basis is too much, you can always consider creating online newsletters.

This marketing material is a great way to connect and bond with your customers, so consider including them in your marketing campaign.4- Trade fairs � One of the best ways to get new contacts is through trade shows.

These networking activities can bring in new customers to your business.

Be sure to present your business effectively and creatively so you can attract a lot of possible customers.

Don�t forget to bring your business cards with you so you can hand them out to anyone who will show interest in your business.5- Charity work � You can sponsor charity works to show the community and your target customers that you care for them.

Help create homes or bring foods so you can introduce your business to them in a more ideal way.

Make sure your efforts are genuine so people will trust you and see you as a credible business.6- Social media � With more and more people joining social networking sites today, why don�t you bring your marketing campaign there? There would be a lot of people there who will be interested in your business.

Social media is a powerful marketing tool so never ignore its marketing capability.There are a lot of other things you can do to promote your business effectively.

Remember though that whether you do�calendar printing or social media make sure to promote your business in a good light.

This will surely inspire loyalty and trust among customers and prospects.

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urgent care centers market to reach us305 bn by 2020 due to emergence of cost effective medical ca

The rise in the healthcare spending expenditure along with increasing geriatric population in particular has boosted the demand for cost-effective and convenient medical care worldwide.

The urgent care model is designed to provide convenient access to quality, cost-effective healthcare services to general public around the world.A new Transparency Market Research report states that the global urgent care centers market stood at US$23.5 bn in 2013 and is predicted to reach US$30.5 bn by 2020.

It is anticipated to expand at a CAGR of 3.80% from 2014 to 2020.Download Sample Report Brochure Free: http://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/sample/sample.php?flag=B&rep_id=2254Urgent care is a type of walk-in clinic providing ambulatory care within a dedicated medical facility outside of a conventional emergency room.

Urgent care centers majorly treat illnesses or injuries that need immediate care.

However, these types of illnesses are not serious enough and thus do not need an ER visit.

Urgent care centers thus allow easy access to an affordable healthcare experience to patients.

Nowadays, urgent care centers are equipped with cutting-edge technology and offer life-saving procedures for the fast recovery of patients.

In terms of service, the market for urgent care centers is segmented into injury, illness, physical, diagnostic, screening, and vaccination.As stated in the report, the increasing aging population and the emergence of cost-effective medical care are amongst the prime drivers stimulating the market for urgent care centers.

In addition, the reduction in waiting time and the flexibility in appointment provided by urgent care centers attract huge patient pool, thus augmenting the growth of the market.

Furthermore, the rising investments in the market for urgent care centers has been resulting in the rise in number of advanced urgent care centers across the world, thus impacting the market positively.

On the other hand, the absence of physicians and the increasing initial establishment costs of urgent care centers may inhibit the growth of the market in forthcoming years.In terms of geography, the global urgent care centers market is segmented into Europe, North America, Asia Pacific, and Rest of the World (RoW).

Amongst these, North America led the market in 2014 and was trailed by the region of Europe, which accounted for the second-largest share in the market.

The region of North America is anticipated to maintain its superiority throughout the forecast horizon.

This is owing to the rising demand for walk-in health services and the increasing preference for cost-effective medical care facilities within North America.

In addition, the use of urgent care centers in case of non-emergency conditions is also a prime factor augmenting the growth of the market in North America.On the other hand, countries such as that of India, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, and China are the prime countries within the region of Asia Pacific offering great opportunities for the companies dominant in the market for urgent care centers.

Within RoW, countries such as that of Mexico, South Africa, Israel, UAE, and Turkey are the prime countries in which the market for urgent care centers is predicted to grow exponentially in forthcoming years.The report states that the market for urgent care centers is fragmented in nature and small vendors such as physician groups or physicians account for about 35% of the these centers.

As per the report, the prime players operating in the market are CareSpot Express Healthcare LLC, FastMed Urgent Care, MedExpress, and Patient First and U.S.

HealthWorks, Inc., among others.Browse Full Report: http://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/urgent-care-centers-market.htmlThe global urgent care centers market is segmented as follows:Urgent Care Centers Market, by ServicesIllnessInjuryPhysicalVaccinationDiagnosticScreeningUrgent Care Centers Market, by GeographyNorth AmericaEuropeAsia-PacificRest of the World (RoW)

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research and development to discover cost effective regenerative medicines on the rise

Over the last decade, the need to discover new applications and enhance the effect and efficiency of the current regenerative medicines has shown a significant growth.

Researchers and scientists are turning their focus to manufacture cost-effective and effective drugs that could potentially help in the treatment of several medical conditions and diseases.Regenerative medicines have gained immense popularity in the last decade.

The progress and advancements in the medical field have propelled the growing popularity of the same.

The ability to replace, repair and regenerate tissues and organs that are affected by a disease, injury or natural ageing has boosted the potential of regenerative medicines in the future.

Regenerative medicines find applications in a wide range of physical disorders and biological problems such as dermatology, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and other orthopedic applications.

In the current scenario, research and development is focused on the development of technologies that are solely based on biologics, somatic, genes and stem cells.

Stem cells has received added importance in the industry as they are capable of proliferation.

A recent report published by Allied Market Research offers useful insights related to the regenerative medicine market.

It discusses the current trends, growth opportunities and the major challenges of the market in detail.New regenerative medicine center funded by NIHThe recently developed interdisciplinary health science resource center of University of Michigan was awarded a sum of $11.7 million for the research and development activities of regenerative medicine.

The project was funded by the National Institutes of Health.

The new facility will help in bringing scientists, clinicians and engineers from the university in a collaboration with the research team at the University of Pittsburgh, Harvard University and a few private companies involved in the advancement of regenerative medicines.

One of the major objectives of the project is to seek new methods to restore dental, oral and the craniofacial tissues that were lost or damaged in an injury, affected by a disease or congenital disorders.

The research project also involves participants from the Medical School, College of Pharmacy, School of Public Health, Office of Technology Transfer and Michigan Institute for Clinical and Health Research, and the College of Engineering.Study of regenerative medicines involves a thorough research that combines engineering and biology.

The research involves identifying damaged cells, organs and tissues that require regeneration and help them become fully functional.

Researchers are also exploring different methods to heal wounds at a rapid pace and to repair bones that are damaged.

The strategies used for research can either be cell-based, research-based, material-based or the combination of all of the aforementioned strategies.

Tiny polymer-based scaffold is used in material-based research in craniofacial field.

The polymer-based scaffold are utilized to help in the growth of a damaged bone or a periodontal tissue that highly supports tooth-replacement dental implants.

The overall aim of the entire project is to formulate new strategies and medical devices that are likely to help in the process of repairing or regenerating damaged tissues namely, muscle and blood vessels, salivary glands, craniofacial bone and nerves.The regenerative medicine market is staring at a bright future owing to several initiatives taken by scientists, researchers, genetic engineers and other industry experts to develop and discover new cost-effective and efficient regenerative medicines.

Several universities, medical colleges, and industry experts are joining hands to seek novel and innovative regenerative medicines to replace or regenerate multiple medical injuries and body parts.

Research and development activities has also witnessed a growth in the last ten years owing to advanced tools and technology.

Currently, developed economies such as the U.S.

has been the frontrunner in terms of research and initiatives in the field of regenerative medicines.

Increase in funding, joint ventures and research projects directed towards the development of regenerative medicines is the prime factor for the popularity of these medicines in the U.S.

However, Asia-Pacific is making progress in the field of medical technology.

For instance three academic and business firms in Japan are hoping to carry out clinical studies on stem cells and are also aiming to commercialize regenerative therapy.�

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how to find most cost effective natural beauty products

To find cost effective natural beauty products, one can look for the ingredients detail online and even buy such products over the various websites available for the stores.

how to find most cost effective natural beauty products is no more a mystery as multiple options are available to the customers.

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In present arena,people are looking for the jewelry which cost effective and also looks better.

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how to choose the efficient yet cost effective voip provider for your business

Choosing the best business VoIP Provider for your business takes a lot of research.

This includes the hardware requirements, cost estimates of each number Choosing the best business VoIP system for your business takes a lot of research for the IT and communication department.

This includes understanding the hardware requirements of each of the user, determining the cost estimates of each number and all the extensions, feature requirements of all the users and other crucial aspects.Business requirementsDetermining the requirements is the basic criteria while shifting to VoIP for choosing the best business VoIP for your business.

Each user may have different requirements when coming to communicating in business.

One all the requirements are known, it will be easier to determine the best features required for the business VoIP.�AffordabilityThere are numerous VoIP providers in the market, which are providing business VoIP services at a competitive cost.

The costs range from $4.99 – $29.99 per month for per user/extension.

As the charges can be more for the most robust features, businesses must determine which features they can afford while providing the best-suited price for their business VoIP.�Justifiable pricing and featuresIt all makes sense when the features are just ideal for the business with a price that justifies its cost.

Paying more for the features your business does not even need is a sheer waste of business funds.

Business VoIP providers have various plans that vary according to the different features in that plan.

You need to choose the best-suited one for your business according to the price and feature it offers.�Compatibility with businessChoose a business VoIP plan that is compatible with the existing functioning of the business.

This does not mean that the business needs to change its entire communication system, which can alter their working environment.

While changing the business communication process you also need to consider that the shift should not obstruct the working place environment.

While shifting to business VoIP, the communication system must be compatible with the business environment while also keeping up with business communication needs.On the other hand, doing a small research helps you get the best solution for your business.Researching the various business VoIP providers before choosing one can assist in solving various issues, which are facing by the users.

A clear understanding of the user’s requirements, challenges and the “must” feature that the users’ needs while communicating with clients externally and coworkers internally.�The researcher or the IT department can be sure about the VoIP provider by asking the below set of questions to the business VoIP provider.

This will assure the business, about the services of the provider and assist in choosing the best-suited plan.Ask the below questions to your VoIP provider which will assist in finding out more about your business requirements and the plans which will suit your business the most.The above-mentioned are just examples of the questions you would ask the business VoIP provider.

The questions may vary according to the requirements of the business.

You must make sure that you cover all the angles from the business point of view.

cost effective wedding and reception invites do it oneself

Trying to find affordable marriage ceremony along with party cards? One among your most straightforward, nearly just about all pleasurable, most human being along with however normally not noticed kinds of�cost-effective big event cards is to produce positive they might be by yourself.Searching for reasonable wedding and reception invites? One of your simplest, practically all pleasurable, almost all particular person and nevertheless typically unnoticed kinds of cost-effective wedding ceremony invites will be to create positive they may be by yourself.There's by no implies also been a larger time to help you to generate your cost-effective wedding and reception invites.

Somewhat creative imagination, a although, so you'll develop a marriage ceremony invite which your mates and relations will certainly delight in with regard to an extended time.

Relying on that which you involve along with just how much you might be carrying out by on your own, it definitely is maybe is often done to produce the invites with regard to as handful of as twelve to fifteen to forty pennies a post.Prior to have begun, although, take on into accounts that you just will need to have the invites to present the distinct notion of your marriage ceremony.

As a case in point, a really formal marriage ceremony involves invites which can be as formal.

This type of commonly equals etched dark-colored, sterling silver, or silver wording versus a treatment method or white-colored document.

Zero visuals.

The created text is in fact confined about the correct, on the within flip of your invite.

Blotter tissues is normally for an added contact about elegance.For just an extra relaxed marriage ceremony, invites need for being relaxed, somewhat much more resourceful as well as person.

Visuals are usually uncover in this circumstances.

Calligraphy is ordinarily employed and not formal typesetting.

Personal information, like document a bouquet of flowers or poetry or images may be incorporated.

If you will be marriage ceremony is often a notion marriage ceremony, claim maybe a Victorian principle, your invites might contain a sheet about broad lace or intricate calligraphy or possibly a photograph on the time period.This could be the chance to constantly be imaginative.

Economical reasonably priced wedding and reception invitations do not must appear affordable, nor carry out they ought to lower the certain viewpoint you could have to the marriage ceremony.Acceptable, let us start with how you are able to create a formal marriage ceremony invite, carrying out the function by yourself in addition to holding considerably above the cost of delivering the place on the market to a specialist printing group.

Initial, you must make a decision what you need incorporated.

There is the unique invite, naturally.

It truly is submitted a great package deal, which generally ordinarily encloses yet another package deal to shield the unique invite, despite the fact that this can be no not regarded as important.

There's the specific RSVP greeting credit card, which typically commonly incorporates a special go back again package.

There exists a party greeting card in the event the celebration are likely being with the diverse area compared to marriage.

And finally, there exists a greeting card along with suggestions detailing techniques to acquire for the marriage ceremony.Clearly, not these selections are vital with regard to just about each formal or traditional marriage ceremony.

You'll should come to a decision which types are generally befitting your wishes in addition to which ones it is possible to comfortably stay devoid of.Presently, within just producing inexpensive wedding and reception invites for the formal marriage ceremony, you won't want to be a lot too artsy-craftsy, and you really don't wish to get experiencing an enormous printing settlement.

Fortunately, there is absolutely a different which could give the invites a really stylish, ideal appear whilst pricing minor or no...

marriage ceremony invite deals.These type of are offered in a very wide variety of selections, by way of wonderful printable invite bedding ($several.

92 with regard to 50) to empty, loaded together with magnificent greeting credit card stock ($8.

00 with regard to 50).

You might come across from complete closure as well as mail invites to a hundred % cotton homemade forms.

All you could carry out is in fact end the seem in your laptop as well as run the certain invites by way of one's own personal residence printer or acquire them to Kinkos.These kind of packages can very easily continually be obtained online by just accomplishing a search for "wedding day invite set.

inch You can find also them within the region, generally pics place of do provide retail store or with typical list outlets like Deal with.

To assist spruce them up the many more, choose-up cells document bedding through the neighborhood martial arts disciplines together with home-made tasks retail keep, divide the distinct bedding which include them as blotter document inside your invites.

You'll be able to even handle to it is possible to keep up them embossed by way of an assistance like Kinkos, despite the fact that it can build substantially for the entire value.For the much less formal marriage ceremony invite...

every little thing is going.

As an example, a hand-crafted greeting card in hefty, product-colored document which has a sheet about tissues document is actually greater than ample.

When you want to generate positive it truly is all the much more private along with exclusive, you can give a photograph, or have a very pal who is educated with calligraphy publish out just about just about every greeting card singularly.

Document a floral arrangement could be a fantastic contact.

Poetry, much far too.

Or your artful design and type.Your neighborhood hobby full shop definitely ought to have several think seals, embossed seals, good vellum sorts, multi-colored lace, along with other things you must use to produce just about each invite every one of the far more exclusive in addition to particular person.

The major ingredient is really you happen to be producing an investment your time and work and not the particular ordinarily out-of-achieve price tag about obtained reasonable wedding ceremony invitations.

The effect, nevertheless, may be invites which is often genuinely your personal, which loved ones will certainly delight in with regard to a long time.Reasonably priced reasonably priced marriage ceremony invitations have to have not always be badly made, awkward representations.

In fact, way greater than inside past, which has a minor creative imagination together with intelligent shopping you will be in a place to keep a much level of but nonetheless hold the affordable marriage invites in the ambitions.

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Locating and getting a cost effective way to get your company name and brand out there means providing something with your name on it to your customers and potential clients.

Promotional pens may be just what you need and can provide you with an ongoing presence that lasts and one that is also highly cost effective.

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Low-Cost, Effective Promo Items A lot of companies these days are enduring financial strain due to the shaky state of our overall economy.

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Car repairing services in Chichester is very cost effective with the all elegant features that fall upon the satisfaction of people.

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