Holistic Part 4

A SCIENTIFIC LOOK AT ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

Homeopathy, Naturopathy, Energy Medicine, and Other "Holistic" Approaches

Part 4: Energy Medicine and "New Age" Healing

Thomas J. Wheeler, Ph.D.

Associate Professor (retired), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,

University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville KY

thomas.wheeler@louisville.edu

Revised 2020

This original version of this material was a part of a handout for an elective course given to medical students at the University of Louisville.

Copyright 2020.  Permission to copy for non-profit uses is granted as long as proper citation of the source is given.

DISCLAIMER: The material presented here is not medical advice.  It represents the author's summary of scientific evidence concerning various topics.  For medical advice, see your physician.

A pdf file containing all parts and references can be downloaded from ARTICLES or HOLISTIC.


CONTENTS OF PART 4

Energy medicine                                                                Radonics

            Overview                                                                    Reiki

            Claims of proponents                                          "New Age" healing

            Reviews                                                                        Color healing

            Scientific critique                                                      Cystal healing

Therapeutic touch                                                                 Kirlian photography

Healing touch                                                                      Shamanic healing

Distant healing

Johrei                                                                                     References


ENERGY MEDICINE

Overview

Proponents of “energy medicine” and “subtle energy” claim to deal with forms of life energy not recognized by science. "Energy healing and energy medicine (EM) are terms derived from the theory that a subtle biologic or spiritual energy surrounds and permeates the body and can be influenced for therapeutic effect...Even though mechanisms of EM have not yet been established in terms of biomedical science, theories have been advanced, and EM is increasingly being offered to both inpatients and outpatients by major hospitals...Many forms of energy medicine are practiced by trained practitioners within specific traditions, such as Reiki, Healing Touch, and Therapeutic Touch. In addition, however, some solo practitioners discover their ability to effect positive health status changes and practice EM without or in addition to formal training" (Dufresne et al. 2015. J Altern Complement Med. 21(6):339-49).

According to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2005. Energy medicine: an overview), "Energy medicine is a domain in CAM that deals with energy fields of two types:

That is, the first includes genuine forms of energy such as electromagnetic radiation, while the latter is "based on the concept that human beings are infused with a subtle form of energy. This vital energy or life force is known under different names in different cultures, such as qi in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), ki in the Japanese Kampo system, doshas in Ayurvedic medicine, and elsewhere as prana, etheric energy, fohat, orgone, odic force, mana, and homeopathic resonance." This mixing of science and pseudoscience in the same category is inappropriate and produces confusion among members of the lay public (and it appears not to be used in more recent publications from the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, the new name of NCCAM). Proponents also cite this definition as if it lends legitimacy to their claims.

The discussion below deals only with the "putative" type of energy medicine. Unconventional uses of genuine forms of energy, such as lasers and magnets, are dealt with in the article "Chelation Therapy; Allergy and Arthritis Treatments; Other Miscellaneous Topics."

"The North American Nursing Diagnosis Association (NANDA) has now approved nursing diagnosis of 'Disturbed Energy Field, disruption in the flow of energy surrounding a person's being that results in a disharmony of the body, mind, and/or spirit'" (Midilli and Eser 2015. Pain Manag Nurs. 16(3):388-99).

From 2002 to 2004 the University of Arizona "received four grants, totaling over 2 million dollars, from the NCCIH division of the NIH to fund the now-defunct 'Center for Frontier Medicine in Biofield Science' (CFMBS) which has transformed into the 'Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness and Health.' The aims of the grants and center were to study three energy healing methods: therapeutic touch (TT), johrei, and Qi-Gong. The main recipient for those grants and the current director of the center, Gary E. Schwartz, PhD, is listed at U of A as a professor of psychology, neurology, psychiatry, medicine and surgery - most of which are highly unusual positions to hold without a medical degree. In addition he has made quite the writing career from publishing books such as: The Afterlife Experiments, The Truth about Medium, and The Energy Healing Experiments, the last of which was based upon work done under the aforementioned grants" (Luke 2017 Jul 21. Science-Based Medicine blog).


Claims of proponents

The following quotes from proponents give a sense of the underlying assumptions, proposed mechanisms, and roles of practitioners in various forms of "energy medicine":

Pierce (2007. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 11(2):253-8) described the following common assumptions of biofield therapies:

Some points from Benor (2002. Med Clin North Am. 86(1):105-25):

Anderson and Gaylor (2012.Clin J Oncol Nurs. 16(1):43-8) wrote: "In a healthy individual, the energy field is symmetrical and balanced, allowing energy to flow evenly...Physical and psychological symptoms may cause or arise from imbalances in the energy field, and biofield therapies are believed to restore, energize, and balance energy field disturbances."

Some points from Purnall and Whitt (2016. Holist Nurs Pract. 30(1):4-9): "In bioelectrodynamics, we view our bodies as vibrating fields of energy. While our individual DNA sequence defines the constituent physical properties of our bodies, there is also a unique frequency or pattern of energy that makes us each individuals...The flow of energy and information in the quantum world is holistic, meaning the whole being and not one specific chemical pathway is involved in the energy ebb and flow...Energy medicine can enhance many biological processes that are necessary for and are the basis of life. Electromagnetic energy fields are absorbed by all excitable and nonexcitable cells in the organism and affect, and actually enhance, multiple pathways at the same time in a tertiary or nonlinear fashion."

According to Ross (2019. Glob Adv Health Med. 8:2164956119831221), "The HEF [human energy field] has been described as a complex dynamic of EMFs that include individual oscillating electrically charged moving particles such as ions, biophotons, and molecules, which create standing waves. Disturbances in the coherence of energy patterns of the HEF are indications of disease and aging. When these energy particles are exposed to EM in the form of coherent energy patterns (eg, PEMF, vibrational medicine, Polarity Therapy, acupuncture, Healing Touch, etc), the disturbed resonant patterns return to their original, coherent, harmonic, and vibrational state (homeostasis)...The subtle energy of the HEF is easily modulated by the therapist’s hands. The client and practitioner work together using breathing techniques to move stagnant or blocked energy from the cells, across the tissues and through the organs. Human touch therapies are patient-practitioner oriented, where both the giver and receiver of the energy treatment must work in tandem for beneficial results to occur. The practitioner grounds and centers himself/herself, meaning all thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations are neutralized. During optimal healing states, our bodies resonate at certain frequencies (0.3–100 Hz), which correlate with delta, theta, alpha, and beta brain waves...Touch therapies bring distorted frequencies of brain waves, organ resonance, and endocrine/chakra systems back into balance by modulating the subtle energies of the HEF. Practitioners detect and manipulate the subtle energy and provide a resonating template for the patient’s biofield to follow."

"Energy healing offers the potential for a shift in physiological state and present moment awareness that may be a first step in altering the perspectives that sustain symptom burden. Energy healing also has the potential to 'facilitate personal growth through a deeper connection to the spiritual aspects of life, thereby reducing stress...' and alleviating illness symptoms. It may also improve self-confidence, emotional balance, inner strength, acceptance of health status and relationships with friends and family members. In instances of chronic pain where pain is often disproportionate to tissue damage, and underlying causes are not easily identified, energy healing has the capacity to produce a deep relaxation effect, thereby decreasing muscle tension and shifting the perspective of the patient away from an internal focus on their symptoms towards a more positive self-perception" (Rao et al. 2016. Complement Ther Med. 25:26-41).

Hankey and McCrum (2007. J Altern Complement Med. 13(3):303-4) noted "a well-known phenomenon among healers - that once the training is there, healing can take place spontaneously even without their active intention. It is as if the healing energy flows from a 'higher potential' to a 'lower potential'."

Hintz et al. (2003. Altern Ther Health Med. 9(3 Suppl):A13-30) discussed "the conjecture that there are at least 3 elements of the healing process. The first is the physical transfer of energy, either through direct contact or bioenergy-related fields at a distance. The second is the ability of the practitioner to transmit his bioenergy at an appropriate carrier frequency (frequency of the electromagnetic radiation which 'carries' the modulation or signal) and the recipient to 'tune' to this frequency, and third, the ability of the practitioner to appropriately modulate his BMF [biomotive force] or carrier frequency and the recipient to decode this modulation."

"Biofield energy emitted from the practitioner's hands has a frequency between 0.3 and 30 Hz, with primary activity in the range of 7–8Hz. This range of biofield frequencies is most effective for facilitating bone and soft tissue healing. Trained practitioners can initiate, modify, or stop the flow of biofield energy at will. The practitioner can deliver a constant flow of energy to the body without modifications or can oscillate the delivered energy in a back-and-forth fashion between the two hands. With oscillating energy, the healer intends to induce an oscillatory motion within the tissue and enhance tissue relaxation and extensibility...Although there is no validated scientific explanation for the mechanism of OBFT [oscillating biofield therapy], it is speculated that oscillating biofield energy may induce a similar physiological effect as mechanical oscillation applied to a tissue" (Nourbakhsh et al. 2016. J Altern Complement Med. 22(11):911-20).

"Healers have maintained that their greatest healing energy comes from the tip of the middle finger, which is where the Pericardium meridian (Pe9) is located. By mentally concentrating on healing, it was possible to move the frequency of this meridian from its endogenous value of 0.25 Hz close to the therapeutic 7.8 Hz of the Heart meridian. Experienced healers and qi practitioners must have a facility for controlling their meridian frequencies according to the needs of the patient" (Smith 2010. J Complement Med. 16(9):931-3).

Rubik (1995. Altern Ther Health Med. 1(1):34-9) described "two proposed mechanisms for healer interventions":

"1. Consciousness is causal: ie, the healer's intent to heal may interact with the physical realm. More specifically, the conscious intention of the healer through prayer or other means may physically improve the health and well-being of the patient. According to conventional physical theory, acceptance of this hypothesis would require extending Bell's theorem of nonlocality in quantum physics and the principle of causality to consciousness...

"2. Subtle energies may be exchanged or otherwise involved, for instance, a condition of physical resonance between the energy fields of healer and patient, which may mediate the beneficial effects. The central nervous system emits electromagnetic fields up to about 30 Hz, measured by electroencephalogram (EEG), although these are extremely low intensity fields. Some other type of energy even more subtle than electromagnetism but not yet identified by science also may be involved in healing.

"The first mechanism is possible despite any distance that may exist between healer and patient because nonlocal effects do not diminish over distance. However, the second mechanism is possible only for local interactions (short-range distances) because energy fields - at least electromagnetic fields - dissipate over long distances. On the other hand, if new forms of energy that do not decay rapidly over distance are invoked, the exchange of subtle energies would be a possible mechanism for long distance healing."

Later she added: "Briefly, local healing may be mediated by informational patterns of ultraweak, extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields emanating from the body of the healer that are associated with altered states of consciousness such as healing states" (ibid.).

Jonas (2003. Altern Ther Health Med. 9(2):56-61) wrote, "Although we use the term 'energy' to describe concepts that are currently thought of as possibly electromagnetic in nature, we realize that many of the phenomena described are not energy in this sense as they do not dissipate with distance nor are they said to be blocked with conventional energy barriers. Some practices fit more closely with conventional concepts of energy (such as therapeutic touch), others deal more with consciousness and thought (distance healing and mind-matter interactions), and others are used in a hybrid way (such as qigong) that combines concepts of energy and consciousness."

"Additional physical correlates to healing using the Bengston method have included anomalous magnetic micropulsations in the surrounding space of healing events which may indicate a reduction in entropy when healing occurs. If this is the case, then perhaps it is 'information' rather than 'energy' that is being transmitted in the healing process" (Beseme et al. 2018. Dose Response. 16(3):1559325818782843).

Research of Tiller and colleagues allegedly "shows that there are two unique levels of physical reality that may be coupled by the proper application of human consciousness. In the uncoupled state, our normal physical reality, this second level is invisible to our physical senses and to our traditional measurement instruments. In the coupled state, the physics of this second level is malleable to human intentions and to human consciousness so that material property measurement magnitudes can be either increased or decreased by specific human intentions" (Pajunen et al 2009. J Altern Complement Med. 15(9):963-8).

Ultraweak photons, or biophotons, produced from reactive oxygen species as a part of normal metabolism, are sometimes considered by "energy medicine" proponents as indicative of a human energy field and useful in diagnosing health.

Many devices are marketed with reference to "energy medicine" concepts, purporting to measure and/or adjust the body's "frequencies" or "resonance" (see the article "Chelation Therapy; Allergy and Arthritis Treatments; Other Miscellaneous Topics," section on "Devices").


Reviews

All conditions (nontouch therapies) - Hammerschlag et al. 2014. J Altern Complement Med. 20(12):881-92. "The pilot study nature of essentially all the identified nonphysical contact biofield therapy RCTs, as reflected by low sample sizes alone, precludes drawing robust conclusions. Given this perspective, the finding that two thirds of the higher-scoring trials demonstrated at least partial effectiveness favors a continued research effort..."

Chronic illnesses - Rao et al. 2016. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 25:26-41. "Energy healing has demonstrated some improvement in illness symptoms, however high level evidence consistently demonstrating efficacy is lacking."


Scientific critique

In general, proponents of "energy medicine" offer no convincing evidence that such forms of energy even exist, let alone that they can manipulate them to provide healing. Modern science is able to detect various forms of energy with exquisite sensitivity (see below); the existence of new forms of energy that can be detected with unaided senses and altered using only the hands is absurd.

Bleske-Rechek et al. (2019. Skeptic. 24(2):24-31) wrote, concerning reviews of energy medicine, "Decade after decade, the conclusion from each review is that studies that claim to test the healing powers of energy therapy suffer from serious methodological flaws - and those flaws need to be addressed if energy therapy as a practice is to be taken seriously by the scientific community." Reviewing articles on therapeutic touch and healing touch published between 2010 and 2016, they found only nine properly controlled studies, and only one of these reported a significant effect. Also, "we came across multiple articles published by the same research team, at least two of which were published with different author orders and in different journals but reported the exact same data...In summary, the research on energy therapy has not improved at all; if anything, it has gotten worse...Moreover, regardless of study quality, most studies did not clearly support TT [therapeutic touch] and HT [healing touch], but biased reporting of data and of each other's work often made it appear they did."

Advocates claim that quantum theory, with concepts such as particle-wave duality and entanglement, can provide a theoretical justification for "energy medicine." Experts in physics reject this claim.

A critique by Stenger (1999. Sci Rev Altern Med. 3(1):16-21) included the following points:

Elsewhere, Stenger discussed measurements of supposed energies emitted by a healer that failed to decrease with distance. "When one measures a quantity that is not conserved under conditions when it should be, then that can be taken as good evidence that what is being observed is not some form of energy" (2005 June. Skeptical Briefs. 11, 15).

Ernst (2004. Forsch Komplementarmed Klass Naturheilkd. 11(3):171-3) analyzed several quotes from the literature of "bioresonance therapy." He found that "The quotes have several qualities in common:

In essence I therefore believe that the authors of these texts are disguising nonsense as science - the hallmark of pseudoscientific language."


THERAPEUTIC TOUCH

Therapeutic touch was created by Dolores Krieger, RN, PhD, and Dora Kunz, a psychic "sensitive." It has roots in the religious philosophy of Theosophy, which has some Hindu elements. Later Krieger shifted her justification for therapeutic touch to Martha Rogers' "Science of Unitary Human Beings," a pseudoscientific philosophy rooted in paranormal concepts.

"Therapeutic Touch (TT) is the current term used for an ancient practice called the 'laying of hands' commonly used in a variety of settings. However, this is a misnomer since the intervention does not necessarily require any direct patient touching. It is based on a belief that every living organism has an energy field around it that produces an aura. This energy field can go unbalanced when the living organism is sick and healers can feel and manipulate this energy field by movement of hands over the patient's body just like massaging the air few inches above the patient's body. This process usually lasts 10–20 min depending on the practitioner's ability to detect these imbalances and the amount of areas with energy congestion. This primal life energy imbalance can be corrected according to TT practitioners" (Younus et al. 2015. Complement Ther Med. 23(4):612-6).

"When an individual is ill, changes in his or her energy patterns are perceived as energy field imbalances that may be associated with symptoms of the illness. Based on the perceived, altered characteristics of the ill person's energy patterns and symmetry, the TT practitioner moves his or her hands and uses mental imaging to intentionally modulate the energy field to facilitate the person's endogenous capacity to heal" (Vanaki et al. 2016. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 22:64-8).

Stages consist of:

"TT practitioners may choose direct laying on of hands during treatment and may invite the presence of angelic beings (empowering and emotionally healing energy symbols) during treatment" (Potter 2003. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 7(1):89-91).

"The therapeutic touch technique has a wide range of uses, including reducing stress and anxiety, relieving pain (acute, chronic and neurological origin), reduction and control of cardiac arrhythmias, blood pressure, reduction of fatigue, increasing blood hemoglobin, carpal tunnel syndrome and abdominal cramping recovery, fever reduction, increasing speed of healing of wounds and fractures, premenstrual syndrome and insomnia" (Matourypour et al. 2015. J Educ Health Promot. 6;4:61).

"Today, therapeutic touch is taught in more than 100 colleges of nursing in Europe and the United States. In addition, it is recognized by the American Nurses Association (ANA), National League for Nurses and American Holistic Nurses Association...it is estimated that over 40,000 nurses in the United States perform therapeutic touch" (Matourypour et al. 2015. Op. cit.)

“There is currently a lack of consensus on the scientific mechanism to explain these therapies, but most therapists who provide TT or HT [healing touch] believe the mechanism for clinical effects involves a subtle energy, vibration field, non-linear electromagnetic energy, or spirit or vital force” (Kemper and Kelly 2004. Pediatr Ann. 33(4):248-52).

It is said to be supported by some studies involving humans, animals, cultured cells, and plants. However, according to Clark and Clark (1989. In: Examining Holistic Medicine, Clark and Clark, editors), "the current research base supporting continued nursing practice of therapeutic touch is, at best, weak. Well-designed, double-blind studies have thus far shown transient results, no significant results, or are in need of independent replication." More recent literature reviews by skeptical groups in 1993 and 1997 confirmed this assessment.

A typical sham or placebo intervention for clinical studies was described by Aghabati et al. (2010. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 7(3):375-81): "Mimic treatments were provided to the placebo group by the practitioner. She performed the same movements used by the practitioner during the TT process (the duration was the same as the experimental group). However, instead of centering and holding the intent to help the subject, as the practitioner did in the TT intervention, here, she simply began the treatment and counted back from 100 by serial sevens during the whole treatment."

The popularity of therapeutic touch may involve a desire to restore the traditional bedside nursing role in an increasingly technology-oriented medical enterprise, as well as empowerment of nurses vs. doctors by giving the former a unique role.

Magician James Randi issued a $700,000 challenge to anyone who can demonstrate the ability to detect "energy fields." The prize was later increased to $1 million for demonstration of any type of paranormal phenomena. While the challenge was discontinued in 2015, various skeptic groups still offer large amounts of prize money for such a demonstration.

Experiments by 11-year-old Emily Rosa achieved wide publicity (Rosa et al. 1998. JAMA. 279(13):1005-10). In this study, therapeutic touch practitioners were unable to detect energy fields. In the subsequent 20 years, proponents of TT have never scientifically demonstrated that they can even detect a human energy field, to say nothing of being able to assess its quality, manipulate it, and achieve healing.

Long et al. (1999. Sci Rev Altern Med. 3(2):53-61) performed a study addressing the fact that "Despite this lack of direct physical contact between TT practitioners and patients, both practitioners and patients often report feeling sensations of warmth and tingling during TT session," which they attribute to an unconventional form of energy. They found that "Participants in Therapeutic Touch sessions may be mistaking conventional sensory cues such as radiated body heat for evidence of a metaphysical phenomenon."


Reviews

Cancer care - Tabatabaee et al. 2016. Med Arch. 70(2):142-7. "...an affirmation can be made regarding the use of TT, as a non-invasive intervention for improving the health status in patients with cancer." However, Ernst (2017 Mar 29. Edzard Ernst blog) found that the review's "conclusions are not credible...the methods lack any attempt of critically evaluating the primary data."

Wound healing - O'Mathúna 2016. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD002766. Four trials were identified, all "at high risk of bias. There is no robust evidence that TT promotes healing of acute wounds."


Scientific critique

As with other forms of energy medicine, the principles of therapeutic touch are inconsistent with scientific knowledge. Proponents have not published convincing evidence of the existence of the phenomena they purport to detect and manipulate, nor have they published convincing evidence of the effectiveness of their methods.


HEALING TOUCH

"Healing Touch involves a conscious, intentional process of having the practitioner use his or her hands to influence the energy fields and centers of the human energy system to promote self-healing. Janet Mentgen, a registered nurse and founder of Healing Touch Curriculum, blended traditional and contemporary healing practices and used intentional presence to balance 'dynamic energy systems.' Students of HT learn processes that cultivate intentional presence, including mindful concepts of centering, attuning, and grounding to achieve a meditative state. Formal HT training began as a nursing continuing education program in the 1980s and has since evolved into a certification program by Healing Beyond Borders that is endorsed by the American Holistic Nurses Association and the National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork. Research has shown that HT helps both the patient and the caregiver by significantly decreasing respiratory rate, blood pressure, pain, mood disturbance, and fatigue; increasing overall function, emotional role function, and mental health function, as well as decreasing mean length of stay and mean anxiety scores...Healing Beyond Borders offers a 5-level certification program encompassing more than 30 specific HT techniques learned both didactically and experientially" (Sengros et al. 2014. Holist Nurs Pract. 28(6):370-5).

"Intention is set at the beginning of the treatment for the client's highest level of functioning. Treatments include interventions that balance and clear the body's biofield, as well as techniques that treat specific problems" (Foley et al. 2016. J Holist Nurs. 34(3):271-9).

"Healing touch is a similar modality to Therapeutic Touch however purports to have an extended focus that incorporates spiritual growth and intuitive awareness by means of balancing the chakras (seven major energy centres within the body)" (Rao et al. 2016. Complement Ther Med. 25:26-41).

An example of healing touch technique was given by Gentile et al. (2018. J Altern Complement Med. 24(9-10):968-73): "Before administering HT, the practitioner and patient set an intention for the patient's highest good. Then, the practitioner centered, grounded, and connected with the patient's human energy field. Light touch or near-body touch techniques included the following: (1) Magnetic Clearing to clear energetic congestion from the human energy field; (2) Ultrasound to release congestion in the energy field; (3) Mind Clearing to decrease stress and promote relaxation; and (4) The Chakra Connection to connect, open, and balance the energy centers (chakras)."

Alleged benefits of healing touch "include reducing stress, calming anxiety and depression, decreasing pain, strengthening the immune system, enhancing recovery from surgery, complementing care for neck and back problems, deepening spiritual connection, supporting cancer care, creating a sense of well-being, and easing acute and chronic conditions" (Lincoln et al. 2014. Holist Nurs Pract. 28(3):164-70).

A review by Anderson and Taylor (2011. J Holist Nurs. 29(3):221-8) found only five randomized controlled trials of healing touch. "Though the studies support the potential clinical effectiveness of Healing Touch in improving health-related quality of life (HQoL) in chronic disease management, more studies are required given that even the studies included with high-quality scores had limitations."


Scientific critique

As with other forms of energy medicine, the principles of healing touch are inconsistent with scientific knowledge. Proponents have not published convincing evidence of the existence of the phenomena they purport to detect and manipulate, nor have they published convincing evidence of the effectiveness of their methods.


DISTANT HEALING

Two examples of contemporary "healers":

Ernst wrote "Distant healing - an 'update' of a systematic review" (2003. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 115(7-8):241-5). "Since the publication of our previous systematic review in 2000, several rigorous new studies have emerged. Collectively they shift the weight of the evidence against the notion that distant healing is more than a placebo."


Scientific critique

As with other forms of energy medicine, the principles of distant healing are inconsistent with scientific knowledge. Proponents have not published convincing evidence of the effectiveness of their methods.

JOHREI

"Johrei (pronounced Jo-ray) was founded by Mokichi Okada in Japan in 1935; ‘Joh’ means purify and ‘Rei’ means soul, spirit or ghost. It is considered by some to be a manifestation of divine energy that can be channeled through one individual to another for healing. In a Johrei healing session, divine energy is directed from a practitioner's body, through his hands, to various parts of a recipient's body. Three principles form the pillars of Johrei philosophy as follows: (I) that divine energy can be used to heal, (ii) that surrounding one's self with beauty and art perpetuates fulfillment in life, and (iii) that natural farming allows for more wholesome growth of our bodies and our divine energy. At this time, an estimated 5 million people practice Johrei worldwide, according to Johrei organizational bodies in the Unites States. The history of Johrei includes compelling case reports maintained at the National Archives in Washington, DC, documenting recovery with Johrei treatment from deadly exposure to ionizing radiation released from the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki" (Hall et al. 2006. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 4(2):191–4).

It "is a form of spiritual healing comprising 'energy chanelling' and light massage. The latter incorporates elements of Reiki and acupressure. Energy channeling is the direction of an intangible healing energy through the hands of the healer at a distance from the person receiving the healing. Practitioners differ in the emphasis given to these two components. Johrei can be learned and practised by anyone and is seen as a two-way process that heals both the healer and the person healed" (Canter et al. 2006. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 3(4):533-40).

In the U.S., research on Johrei has been centered at the University of Arizona.


Scientific critique

As with other forms of energy medicine, the principles of johrei are inconsistent with scientific knowledge. Proponents have not published convincing evidence of the existence of the phenomena they purport to detect and manipulate, nor have they published convincing evidence of the effectiveness of their methods.

"The movement as a whole is sometimes referred to as a non-exclusive religion, and other components of the belief system include art appreciation, flower arranging, and organic gardening. Taken together, like much of CAM and IM, not one of these is based upon actual medicine or science. We already know that there is no benefit to organic gardening beyond the possibly relaxing act of gardening, as non-organic gardening aids such as genetically modified seeds and artificial fertilizers are clearly safe. Flower arranging could also be relaxing, but that’s it. Followers of the johrei movement do not see these practices as simple stress relief, but as a means to attain some form of spiritual enlightenment and steps on the path towards an earthly utopia" (Luke 2017 Jul 21. Science-Based Medicine blog).


RADIONICS

"Use of instruments or inanimate objects to detect, magnify, store, or control alleged psychic and healing energies" (Butler 1992. A Consumer's Guide to "Alternative Medicine”). The practitioner may use a specimen, such as a lock of hair or blood sample, for analysis. Radionics is scientifically invalid.


REIKI

Reiki is a "New Age" technique with Eastern roots. "System founded in late nineteenth-century Japan by Mikao Usui (1802-1883), a Christian minister and Zen Buddhist monk...The term 'reiki' refers both to 'spirit energy' and to a method that is largely a variant of aura balancing and the laying on of hands. In The Reiki Touch: A Reiki Handbook (1990), 'reiki master' Judy-Carol Stuart describes the 'energy' as 'pure God-force' that 'flows from the universe into the crown chakra, the throat chakra, and the heart chakra, then out the arms and hands.' This 'love healing force,' she continues, 'has divine intelligence and will seek its own path in discovering and fulfilling the body's requirement.'...The method involves touching parts of the body and 'brushing' its alleged 'aura' with the hands. The apparent aim is to transfer 'universal life force energy' and thus effect healing and harmony" (Raso 1994. “Alternative Healthcare": A Comprehensive Guide).

“One of Usui’s students, Chujiro Hayashi, further developed the healing practices, placing less emphasis on the meditative techniques. An American named Hawayo Takata learned Reiki from Hayashi in Japan and introduced it to Western cultures in the late 1930s. The type of Reiki practiced and taught by Hayashi and Takata may be considered traditional Reiki. Numerous variations (or schools) of Reiki have since been developed and are currently practiced” (National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2008. Reiki: An introduction).

"Reiki is a method of healing which purports to use universal life force energy, which flows from the practitioner to the areas of the body where it is needed. Reiki generates a sense of internal stillness and peace with sensitisation and perception of energy within the hands, which is then directed to the patient using twelve specific hand positions . This process is referred to as ‘attunement’" (Rao et al. 2016. Complement Ther Med. 25:26-41).

From Miles and True (2003. Altern Ther Health Med. 9(2):62-72):

It should be noted that the vibration accessed in Reiki arises from non-dual primordial chi, or Tao, as distinguished from the bioenergetic level of chi stimulated by therapeutic acupuncture.

Hands-on Reiki treatment is offered through light touch on a fully clothed recipient seated in a chair or reclining on a treatment table...A full treatment typically involves placing hands on 12 positions on the head, and on the front and back of the torso. Hands can be placed directly on the site of injury or pain if desired, but the treatment is neither symptom nor pathology specific. When even light touch is contraindicated, as in the presence of lesions, the hands can hover inches off the body. A session can be as short or as long as needed, with full treatments typically lasting 45 to 75 minutes

Reiki is believed to rebalance the biofield, thus strengthening the body’s ability to heal and increasing systemic resistance to stress. It appears to reduce stress and stimulate self-healing by relaxation and perhaps by resetting the resting tone of the autonomic nervous system. Proponents of Reiki believe this might lead to enhancement of immune system function and increased endorphin production.

“The Reiki practitioner does not direct the flow of energy, but rather allows the body’s innate intelligence to guide the energy to where it can do the most good” (Rosada et al. 2015. J Altern Complement Med. 21(8):489-495). "Many call this energy universal, but some say it is from God, Buddha, or a sacred source" (Thrane and Cohen 2014. Pain Manag Nurs. 15(4):897-908).

"The positioning of the therapist's hands is specific. Both hands are held palms down with thumbs and fingers extended as if they had a sock over them. Therapists may feel a cycle of sensations through the hands during placement. The most common sensations are warmth and tingling" (Toms 2011. Crit Care Nurs Q. 34(3):213-7).

“The number of sessions depends on the health needs of the client. Typically, the practitioner delivers at least four sessions of 30 to 90 minutes each. The duration of Reiki sessions may be shorter in certain health care settings (for example, during surgery)...People use Reiki for relaxation, stress reduction, and symptom relief, in efforts to improve overall health and well-being. Reiki has been used by people with anxiety, chronic pain, HIV/AIDS, and other health conditions, as well as by people recovering from surgery or experiencing side effects from cancer treatments. Reiki has also been given to people who are dying (and to their families and caregivers) to help impart a sense of peace” (National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2008. Reiki: An introduction).

“No special background or credentials are needed to receive training. However, Reiki must be learned from an experienced teacher or a Master; it cannot be self-taught. The specific techniques taught can vary greatly. Training in traditional Reiki has three degrees (levels), each focusing on a different aspect of practice. Each degree includes one or more initiations (also called attunements or empowerments). Receiving an initiation is believed to activate the ability to access Reiki energy. Training for first- and second-degree practice is typically given in 8 to 12 class hours over about 2 days. In first-degree training, students learn to perform Reiki on themselves and on others. In second-degree training, students learn to perform Reiki on others from a distance. Some students seek master-level (third-degree) training. A Reiki Master can teach and initiate students. Becoming a Master can take years. Reiki practitioners’ training and expertise vary. Increasingly, many people who seek training are licensed health care professionals. However, no licensing or professional standards exist for the practice of Reiki” (ibid.). "Reiki training generally qualifies for nursing continuing education hours" (Toms 2011. Op. cit.).

"Nurses are among the most frequent administers of Reiki because it is considered a therapeutic intervention that they can offer their patients without the need for a physician's order" (Arvonio 2014. Linacre Q. 81(1):47-56).

"Use of Reiki in health care venues is growing. The Center for Reiki Research Web site lists 74 hospitals, clinics, and hospices where Reiki is offered as a standard of care...Multiple cancer centers as well as many hospice and palliative care programs are offering Reiki as part of care provided to the 'whole' patient. Reiki has been given to patients throughout the acute care setting including endoscopy, oncology infusion, and perioperative areas" (Hahn et al. 2014. Dimens Crit Care Nurs. 33(1):15-21). On the other hand, Dyer et al. (2019. J Altern Complement Med. 25(12):1156-62), citing a 2008 article, stated that "Over 800 hospitals (15%) in the United States currently offer Reiki to patients."

Reiki masters may attempt heal from a distance ("absent healing" or “distant healing”). "Distance healing may be explained by energy particles being simultaneously present at the location and time of the Reiki practitioner and the location and time of the recipient through the intention of the Reiki practitioner" (Thrane and Cohen 2014. Op. cit.).

Arvonio (2014. Op. cit.) noted that "Catholic healthcare facilities are restricted from offering this therapy because it conflicts with the teachings of the Catholic church. However, hospitals are offering it without disclosing the spiritual aspects of it to patients," raising ethical and legal concerns.


Reviews

All conditions

Depression and anxiety - Joyce and Herbison 2015. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD006833. “There is insufficient evidence to say whether or not Reiki is useful for people over 16 years of age with anxiety or depression or both.”

Pain - Doğan 2018. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 31:384-7. Concluded "Reiki was an effective approach." However, Moran et al. 2018 (Complement Ther Clin Pract. 32:115) claim that the review "misinterpreted the results of the study" and that "the overall (combined) result is not statistically significant."

Pain and anxiety - Thrane and Cohen 2014. Pain Manag Nurs. 15(4):897-908. Concluded that "there is evidence to suggest that Reiki therapy may be effective."


Scientific critique

As with other forms of energy medicine, the principles of reiki are inconsistent with scientific knowledge. Proponents have not published convincing evidence of the existence of the phenomena they purport to detect and manipulate, nor have they published convincing evidence of the effectiveness of their methods.


"NEW AGE” HEALING

Background

Definition of "New Age": "New age-ers seek to remake the world and lead it into a millennial 'holistic era' characterized by inner peace, wellness, unity, self-actualization, and the attainment of higher consciousness - in short, by fashioning a 'new planetary culture'." "Mankind, the planet Earth, our solar system, or perhaps even the entire Universe has somehow found itself in a special place in time; at the cutting edge of our movement into a new age" (Levin and Coreil 1986. Soc Sci Med. 23(9):889-97).

Some aspects of "New Age" culture: channeling, environmental awareness (extended to regarding Earth as a living organism), alternative music and art, Eastern religions and practices (especially meditation), alien beings, crystal power, astrology, healing lifestyles, out of body journeys.

Teachings are said to be based on ancient wisdom, either in traditional form or readapted for modern times


Practice and scope

"New age" healing is extremely heterogeneous its methods. These include healing through mental and spiritual means (meditation, visualization, “distant healing”); laying on of hands to transmit "life force" or "energy" (e.g., therapeutic touch); and other techniques (aromatherapy, crystal healing (see below), color healing (see below), acupuncture, acupressure, reflexology, iridology, applied kinesiology).

“...often the silliest beliefs are marketed in the language of junk science. The New Age is replete with talk of vibrational energies and such things as quantum synchronicities. The New Age has a love/hate relationship with science, abhorring its tradition of critical thinking, skepticism and doubt...but appreciating its power to rationalize apparently mysterious phenomena” (Kaminer 2005. Free Inquiry. 25(2):26-30).

“Medical intuitives” use alleged psychic powers to make diagnoses.

The Association for Research and Enlightenment and other followers of Edgar Cayce (died 1925) promote remedies based on his health-related psychic “readings.”

Pyramid power - it is alleged that "the space within the great pyramid and its smaller replicas enhances, intensifies, and/or generates energy of the electromagnetic spectrum and other forms or degrees of the so-called universal energy" (Bhat et al. 2007. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 4(1):35-42).


Characteristics of pseudoscience

Use of undefined "energy," "life force," etc.

There is only anecdotal evidence for many of its claims.

Inclusion of nonscientific (religious and philosophical) concepts


Other points

Duerden (Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery. 10(1):22-9 (2004) has described how phenomena associated with the visual system can be misinterpreted as perception of an aura.


COLOR HEALING

"Treatment involving light, food, clothing, and environment, based on the belief that colors have wide-ranging curative effects. 'Color therapists' claim that cures result from correction of 'color imbalances.' Many hold that the seven colors of the spectrum correspond to the seven major chakras ('energy centers' of the body)." (Raso 1994. Op. cit.) One mode is to treat the body with appropriately colored light to alter its "aura" or "vibrations." Others involve visualization of appropriate colors interacting with body or being breathed in.


Scientific critique

There is no evidence for such an "aura," or that it can be altered by light; for chakras; for relationships of colors to physiology or healing

Light will not penetrate far below the skin, and thus could produce only localized effects.


CRYSTAL HEALING

Background and theory

A "New Age" technique employing crystals (usually quartz). Magical properties of crystals are recognized in folklore and legends from ancient civilizations. "The modern crystal healing phenomenon dates back to the 1970s. They eventually fell out of fashion, I think because they became the icon of silly new age nonsense. But now the beliefs that old-school skeptics debunked in the 70s and 80s, then forgot about for a generation, are making a comeback" (Novella 2019 Sep 18. Science-Based Medicine blog).

Crystals are alleged to have special powers because of their perfect structure; to be able to "resonate," transfer "energy," etc.; to interact with toxins causing disease and to remove them; to correct energy imbalances; and to focus and amplify thoughts.

Powers are claimed to involve piezoelectric properties of crystals (the ability to produce electric current when stressed).

 

Practice and scope

In addition to influencing mental states, emotions, etc., crystals are said to be able to promote healing of a wide variety of diseases, including cancer.

Ceremonies are performed in which crystals are placed on, or passed over, afflicted parts of the body, or on special points similar to acupuncture points.

"Before the power of a crystal can be unleashed by a 'healer,' it must be energized, cleaned, and grounded. To charge up a crystal, some authors recommend a wide variety of methods: placing it in the sunlight or moonlight, burying it in sand, putting it under running water or under a waterfall, or in ocean waves or rushing wind. Simply anything that makes you energetic will make your crystal energetic" (Okulewicz 1989. Skeptical Inquirer. 13:417-21). The crystal may be "programmed" by implanting a positive thought or wish (e.g., for healing).

"How do you know which kind of crystal to use for which problem you are having? You can find many guides, which use the typical CAM standard - 'It can be used,' 'Is often used,' or 'Is known to.' That’s it. There is no supportive framework in theory or in evidence. This is the equivalent of parents saying, 'Because I said so'” (Novalla 2019. Op. cit.).


Scientific critique

Crystal healing involves fantastic claims unsupported by scientific evidence.

Claims made on behalf of crystals are often vague and sometimes contradictory

There is no known "energy" or force which crystals can transmit to the body. While piezoelectric effects are proposed, the relatively impure natural crystals will not generate any piezoelectric current under conditions used in crystal healing.

Crystals do not generate energy on their own.

There are no known mechanism by which the alleged interactions could effect health.

"In 2001 Chris French did a double blind study with 80 participants meditating with either a real quartz crystal or a fake glass crystal. There was a placebo effect where participants felt what they were primed to feel - a warmth or tingling sensation or a sense of well-being. But they were unable to tell the difference between the real or fake crystals, indicating a placebo effect only" (Novella 2019. Op. cit.).


Characteristics of pseudoscience

Nonscientific applications of scientific terminology - energy, vibrations, harmonics, electromagnetic fields, bonding, resonance. Crystals are said to project "energy fields," but there is no indication of what type of energy or how it can be detected.

"Some of the claims are based on another common theme in some alternative systems -  the superstition of sympathetic magic. This is the intuition that something will have an effects suggested by what it looks like...In crystal healing, rose quartz 'is commonly used for attracting and keeping love, as well as protecting relationships.' Of course it is - it’s pink, so it must be infused with the energy of love. Whereas, 'Obsidian crystal stone also protects you from shadow traits - addiction, fear, anxiety, and anger - by acting as a mirror to your inner self.' It’s black, so it must have to do with negative energy. This is metaphor, not reality.

"Proponents of crystal healing also commit the 'appeal to antiquity' fallacy. Often it is pointed out that some ancient Egyptian mummies were buried with crystals. Setting aside the difficulty in interpreting exactly what an ancient culture believed - who cares? Ancient societies believed in a lot of magic. This is hardly a justification for applying leeches or bloodletting" (Novella 2019. Op. cit.).

Proponents show ignorance of basic principles of geology and mineralogy.

Crystal healing is associated with other metaphysical and pseudoscientific concepts and practices (e.g., astrology, psychic phenomena, applied kinesiology).


Other points

Braslow (2019 Aug 28. Crystals might be good for your aura. But buying them could be bad karma. Los Angeles Magazine) pointed out that "Most crystals are not mined specifically. Rather, companies that dig up minerals like cobalt, copper, or gold collect and sell the crystals they find as byproducts. Some healing crystals, though, like lapis lazuli, jade, and amber power entire industries on their own. Crystal mining, like most extractive industries, takes place in countries where vast resource wealth creates incentives for deregulation and opacity. While some purveyors of healing crystals claim to traffic only in ethically sourced goods, without a system of accountability backed by influential governments or industry players, their claims are impossible to verify...sales of crystals sometimes finance illegal or malign enterprises...The environmental impact of the industrial mines supplying crystals is equally dire."

 

KIRLIAN PHOTOGRAPHY

High-voltage electric fields can generate images of objects on photographic paper, surrounded by interesting halos or "auras." "Corona discharge is induced on an object by placing it adjacent to a high-voltage electrode plate. The ionization of the air molecules caused by the high-voltage electrical arcs induced by the high-voltage field is recorded as a light emission directly onto light-sensitive film. Light emission results from the photoionization of the air. It is a form of direct-contact photography" (Hubacher 2015. J Altern Complement Med. 21(2):83-90).

It is sometimes performed on fingers or hands to diagnose diseases or deficiency states. However, the patterns depend on factors such as pressure and humidity, and can be produced using inanimate objects; they have nothing to do with biological "energies."


SHAMANIC HEALING

"Shamanic healing has been a part of most first-people cultures and others', with estimates of a 40,000-100,000 year history. The overall premise of shamanic healing is that the shaman or shamanic practitioner brings non-ordinary healing power and wisdom (from the spirit realm) into ordinary reality through their relationship with unseen spiritual entities, e.g., power animals, human-formed spirits, deities, gods and goddesses, and the elements and other emissaries of power and wisdom from the spiritual realms. This healing power and wisdom is then focused on alleviating the spiritual root causes of an ailment" (Wahbeh et al. 2017. Explore. 13(3):207-17).

It has been proposed that shamanic healing would be useful for treating posttraumatic stress disorder.


REFERENCES

Energy Medicine

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2015. Energy medicine: an overview

Stenger V. 1997. Quantum quackery.  Skeptical Inquirer 21(1):37-40

Stenger VJ. 1999. Bioenergetic fields.  Sci Rev Altern Med. 3(1):16-21

Ernst E. 2004. Bioresonance, a study of pseudo-scientific language. Forsch Komplementarmed Klass Naturheilkd. 11(3):171-3 [abstract]

Hall H. 2008. Gary Schwartz's energy healing experiments: The emperor's new clothes? Skeptical Inquirer 32(2):47-51

Barrett S. 2011. Some Notes on Zdenko Domancic and the "Domancic Method of Biohealing." Quackwatch

Ernst E. 2011. Paranormal healing: What is the way forward? J Psychosom Res. 71(5):287

Ernst E. 2018 Apr 14. Daniel P Wirth, his dubious research, and the remarkable apathy of some medical journals. Edzard Ernst

Bleske-Rechek A, Paulich K, Jorgensen K. 2019. Therapeutic touch redux. Skeptic. 24(2):24-31

 

Therapeutic touch

Barrett S. 2008. Why therapeutic touch should be considered quackery.  Quackwatch

Rosa L, Rosa E, Sarner L, Barrett S. 1998. A close look at therapeutic touch. JAMA. 279(13):1005-10

Sarner L. 1998. The "Emily Event." Skeptic. 6(2):32-5

Long R, Bernhardt P, Evans W. 1999. Perception of conventional sensory cues as an alternative to the postulated "human energy field" of therapeutic touch. Sci Rev Altern Med. 3(2):53-61

O’Mathúna DP. 2000. Evidence-based practice and reviews of therapeutic touch. J Nurs Scholarsh. 32(3):279-85 [abstract]

Gorski D. 2008 Aug 18. Maybe we should use therapeutic touch instead of growth factors to culture cells. Respectful Insolence

Hall H. 2016 May 31. Therapeutic touch pseudoscience: The tooth fairy strikes again. Science-Based Medicine

Ernst E. 2017 Mar 29. Therapeutic touch: A dubious therapy backed by dubious research. Edzard Ernst

 

Healing touch

Ernst E. 2013 Jan 29. Healing touch for combat-exposed soldiers?  Edzard Ernst

Ernst E. 2018 Oct 19. Healing touch and massage both increase cancer pain? Edzard Ernst

 

Distant Healers

Niemark J. 2006. The big bird, the big lie, God, and science. Skeptical Inquirer. 30(2):43-5 [subscription required] [Adam Dreamhealer]

Gorski D. 2017 Nov. 5. Charlie Goldsmith: A new celebrity quack arises, enabled by TLC. Respectful Insolence

Jones C. 2017 Nov 17. Hopelessly devoted to woo: TLC and Forbes bring us yet another celebrity healer. Science-Based Medicine [Charlie Goldsmith]

 

Johrei

Luke J. 2017 Jul 21. Johrei: The next energy healing craze?  Science-Based Medicine

 

Reiki

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2008. Reiki: An introduction [pdf file]

Jarvis WT. 1999. Reiki. National Council Against Health Fraud

Ernst E. 2016 May 7. Reiki healing: SLOPPY RESEARCH OR SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT? Edzard Ernst [study of depression]

Gorski D. 2017 Jan 3. The unreality of reiki and distance healing. Respectful Insolence

Bellamy J. 2017 Sep 28. Reiki: Fraudulent misrepresentation - revisited. Science-Based Medicine

Ernst E. 2017 Oct 7. Reiki gets "strong support" from a new review – is it time to re-write a few textbooks? Edzard Ernst

Ernst E. 2018 Mar 29. Is Reiki effective? The researchers say yes, but I am far from convinced. Edzard Ernst [study of lower back pain]

Ernst E. 2018 Apr 22. Reiki improves pain, nausea, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and well-being … OH NO, IT DOESN’T!!! Edzard Ernst

Ernst E. 2019 May 10. The power of Reiki??? No, the power of Reiki to deceive us. Edzard Ernst [pediatric cancer pain]

Ernst E. 2019 May 22. "Reiki distant healing"…has now been scientifically proven !?!? Edzard Ernst

Ernst E. 2019 Sep 11. Does this new test of Reiki’s ‘efficacy’ overturn my previous assessment? Edzard Ernst

Ernst E. 2019 Nov 1. A large-scale multisite effectiveness trial of Reiki. Edzard Ernst

 

"New Age" approaches

Straight Dope Science Advisory Board. 2001. What’s the scoop on Edgar Cayce, the "Sleeping Prophet"?

Barrett S. 2001. Kirlian photography. Quackwatch

Duerden T. 2004. An aura of confusion: "Seeing auras - vital energy or human physiology." Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery 10(1):22-9 [abstract]; An aura of confusion part 2: The aided eye - "imaging the aura?" Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery 10(2):116-23 [abstract]

Gorski D. 2018 Mar 21. The Global Coherence Initiative: Woo on a global scale. Respectful Insolence

 

Crystal healing

Novella S. 2019 Sep 18. Crystal healing. Science-Based Medicine

Braslow S. 2019 Aug 28. Crystals might be good for your aura. But buying them could be bad karma. Los Angeles Magazine


MAIN PAGE   HOLISTIC

OTHER PARTS:

Part 1: Homeopathy Holistic Part 1

Part 2: Naturopathy Holistic Part 2

Part 3: Other "holistic" approaches: aromatherapy, bodywork, iridology, reflexology, and others Holistic Part 3