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A SCIENTIFIC LOOK AT ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
Mind-Body Medicine and Other Approaches Related to Mental Health and Brain Function
Thomas J. Wheeler, PhD
Associate Professor (retired), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville KY
thomas.wheeler@louisville.edu
Revised 2026
Copyright 2026. Permission to copy for non-profit uses is granted as long as proper citation of the source is given.
DISCLAIMER: The material presented here is not medical advice. It represents the author's summary of scientific evidence concerning various topics. For medical advice, see your physician.
Edzard Ernst ratings: some of the approaches described in this article have been evaluated by Edzard Ernst in his book “Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Modalities” (Second Edition. Springer, 2022). For each approach, Ernst evaluated five criteria (plausibility, efficacy, safety, cost, and risk/benefit balance) with three possible grades (positive, debatable, or negative).
Abbreviations: NCCAM, National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine; NCCIH, National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health; RCT, randomized controlled trial
CONTENTS
Mind-body medicine - general
Mind-body medicine - techniques (including meditation, mindfulness, music therapy, relaxation, and others)
Placebo effects
Hypnosis
Biofeedback
Causes and treatment of autism
Treatment of other conditions (including Alzheimer’s, other forms of dementia, and mental function; anxiety; ADHD; depression; and others)
Other unconventional practices related to mental health (including brain stimulation, brain training, Emotional Freedom Technique, EMDR, Facilitated Communication and variants, SPECT, and many others)
References
MIND-BODY MEDICINE - GENERAL
"Mind-body medicine focuses on the interactions among the brain, mind, body, and behavior, and on the powerful ways in which emotional, mental, social, spiritual, and behavioral factors can directly affect health. It regards as fundamental an approach that respects and enhances each person's capacity for self-knowledge and self-care, and it emphasizes techniques that are grounded in this approach" (NCCAM 2007. Mind-body medicine: An overview).
“The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) now classifies complementary approaches by their primary therapeutic input (how the therapy is taken in or delivered). What were previously referred to as mind and body practices are now categorized as psychological, physical, or combined psychological-physical approaches. Here are some examples:
Psychological approaches: meditation, mindfulness, music therapies
Physical approaches: acupuncture, massage, spinal manipulation
Psychological-physical combination approaches: yoga, tai chi, dance therapies”
(NCCIH 2025. Mind and body practices.)
Ernst (2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Modalities) wrote: “Some proponents of mind-body therapies seem to assume that, conventional clinicians are unaware that the mind can influence them and claim that they adhere to the long obsolete division between the mind and body. The mind, emotions, and attention play important roles in the experience of many symptoms, for instance, pain. Conventional medicine does not only account for this fact but also exploits it in numerous ways. Most mind-body therapies are supposed to induce a degree of relaxation which, in turn, can lead to a reduction of many symptoms...Mind-body therapies are usually not curative but symptomatic treatments. Thus, they are rarely used as sole therapies but employed in conjunction with further treatments which often makes it difficult to know their relative contributions to the clinical outcome. Most mind-body therapies can be delivered to groups of patients which, for a range of reasons, can be preferable to individual therapy.”
Proposed mechanisms
Beyond dealing with pain, emotional and mental states are also thought to influence the body's ability to fight disease through the immune system.
Stress may cause or contribute to various diseases:
1. Stress causes release of glucocorticoids via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Acutely this can activate the immune system, but chronic glucocorticoid release will down-regulate the immune system and lead to increased disease susceptibility.
2. Other physiological responses that are useful in stress (increased pulse and blood pressure, increased blood glucose, decreased gastrointestinal tract activity) can be harmful if continued chronically.
Thus, relief of stress may lessen an underlying cause or contributing factor for various conditions.
McEwen (1998. New Engl J Med. 338(3):171-9) discussed “the long-term effect of the physiologic response to stress, which I refer to as allostatic load...One speculation is that allostatic load over a lifetime may cause the allostatic systems to wear out or become exhausted. A vulnerable link in the regulation of the HPA axis and cognition is the hippocampal region. According to the ‘glucocorticoid-cascade hypothesis,’ wear and tear on this region of the brain leads to dysregulation of the HPA axis and cognitive impairment...inadequate responses by some allostatic systems trigger compensatory increases in others. When one system does not respond adequately to a stressful stimulus, the activity of other systems increases, because the underactive system is not providing the usual counterregulation. For example, if cortisol secretion does not increase in response to stress, secretion of inflammatory cytokines (which are counterregulated by cortisol) increases.”
Arguments in favor
Evidence for connections between the brain and the immune system has led to an area of research called psychoneuroimmunology.
Communication between the brain and the immune system:
1. The brain can release peptide hormones (neuropeptides) that can affect the immune system.
2. There are also nerves connecting the brain directly to some cells of the immune system.
3. The immune system can release hormones (e.g., the cytokine interleukin-1) that affect the brain and other organs.
Animal studies showed that disruptions in these communications (by mutation, pharmacological intervention, or surgery) increases the susceptibility to inflammatory disease, as the brain does not properly down-regulate the immune system.
"There is considerable evidence that emotional traits, both negative and positive, influence people's susceptibility to infection" (NCCAM 2007. Mind-body medicine: An overview).
Studies on animals and people indicate that stress can affect the immune system (though the effects are complex, and do not always suppress the immune system). A stressful lifestyle is associated with increased infection and poorer health in general. Hostility is associated with more heart attacks.
Mind-body therapies may improve the quality of life for patients even if their diseases are not overcome.
"...The physical and emotional risks of using these interventions are minimal. Moreover, once tested and standardized, most mind-body interventions can be taught easily" (NCCAM 2007. Mind-body medicine: An overview).
Reviews (2000-later)
Astin et al. 2003. J Am Board Fam Pract. 16(2):131-47: “there is considerable evidence of efficacy for several mind-body therapies in the treatment of coronary artery disease (eg, cardiac rehabilitation), headaches, insomnia, incontinence, chronic low back pain, disease and treatment-related symptoms of cancer, and improving postsurgical outcomes. We found moderate evidence of efficacy for mind-body therapies in the areas of hypertension and arthritis.”
NCCAM 2007. Mind-body medicine: An overview: "Evidence from multiple studies with various types of cancer patients suggests that mind-body interventions can improve mood, quality of life, and coping, as well as ameliorate disease and treatment-related symptoms, such as chemotherapy-induced nausea, vomiting, and pain...Multicomponent mind-body interventions that include some combination of stress management, coping skills training, cognitive-behavioral interventions, and relaxation therapy may be appropriate adjunctive treatments for coronary artery disease and certain pain-related disorders, such as arthritis."
Wahbeh et al. 2008. Neurology. 70(24):2321-8: “There are several conditions where the evidence for mind-body therapies is quite strong such as migraine headache. Mind-body therapies for other neurology applications have limited evidence due mostly to small clinical trials and inadequate control groups.”
Bertisch et al. 2009. J Psychosom Res. 66(6):511-9: Evidence suggests that mind-body techniques, "such as progressive muscle relaxation and yoga, may effectively treat insomnia and low back pain."
Critiques
Mind-body therapies may raise false hopes of recovery. Patients may blame themselves for causing the disease or for failing to get well.
In some studies, techniques were combined with other factors (diet, exercise) so it is difficult to evaluate the effect of mental aspects. For subjective outcomes (e.g., perception of pain), placebo effects are possible. Correlation of recovery or survival with attitude or social support may be misleading - patients with better attitude and support may comply better with medication, recommended exercise, etc.
Several authors, reviews, and clinical trials have concluded that there is no good evidence that mind-body therapies can affect the incidence or progression of cancer. "Some studies have suggested that mind-body interventions can alter various immune parameters, but it is unclear whether these alterations are of sufficient magnitude to have an impact on disease progression or prognosis" (NCCAM 2007. Mind-body medicine: An overview). A study by Spiegel indicating benefits from psychosocial support on breast cancer survival (Spiegel et al. 1989. Lancet. 2(8668):888-91) has been criticized, for example, by Sampson (2002. Semin Oncol. 29(6):595-600) and Coyne et al. (2007. Psychol Bull. 133(3):367-94). Spiegel’s own replication study was unsuccessful (Spiegel et al. 2007. Cancer.110(5):1130-8).
A meta-analysis of effects of psychological intervention on the immune system (Miller and Cohen 2001. Health Psychol. 20(1):47-63) concluded that there was “only modest evidence that interventions can reliably alter immune parameters.”
Concerning claims that mind-body practices could “reprogram your DNA,” Gorski (2017 Jun 26. Science-Based Medicine) wrote “None of this means that I don’t find it fairly plausible that various exercise regimens could decrease the level of pro-inflammatory gene expression. I even find it plausible that relaxation and meditation might result in similar effects. It is, however a long stretch to claim that such activities ‘reprogram your DNA’ in that changing gene expression doesn’t require doing anything to the DNA itself, just changing levels of the proteins that regulate expression of the genes whose levels change.”
Ernst (2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Therapies) wrote, “For several mind-body therapies, the evidence is encouraging but rarely compelling. This is usually due to several issues: a paucity of studies, the methodological problems encountered when conducting such clinical trials, the low quality of the existing trials, and the lack of research funds in this area.”
Other points
Nerurkar et al. (2011. Arch Intern Med. 171(9):862-4) analyzed National Health Interview Survey data from 2007. They found that increasing use of mind-body medicine was a large factor in the increase in complementary and alternative medicine. Usage of physician-referred mind-body therapies (P-MBT) was 2.9% of Americans, vs. 15.5% for self-referred usage (S-MBT). "Deep breathing exercises were the most common P-MBT used (84.4%), followed by meditation (49.3%), yoga (22.6%), progressive muscle relaxation (19.9%), and guided imagery (13.9%); similar trends were seen in the S-MBT group." A story on the study quoted Dr. Nerurkar: "What we learned suggests that providers are referring their patients for mind-body therapies as a last resort once conventional therapeutic options have failed. It makes us wonder whether referring patients for these therapies earlier in the process could lead to less use of the health care system, and possibly, better outcomes for these patients" (Newswise 2011 May 9).
Bertisch et al. (J Psychosom Res. 66(6):511-9), analyzing 2002 data, found that mind-body therapies were most frequently used for anxiety/depression, back pain, and various other types of pain.
Summary
A growing body of evidence indicates that mental attitudes can affect the incidence and progress of disease, though many results need to be confirmed with more research. Applying the various techniques described above may help patients, as long as they do not have unrealistic expectations.
Edzard Ernst rating for mind-body medicine as a whole: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: debatable-positive. Safety: positive. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: debatable-positive.
MIND-BODY MEDICINE: TECHNIQUES
Deep breathing
“Studies have shown that slow, deep breathing (also called diaphragmatic breathing) exercises may modestly lower blood pressure and reduce levels of cortisol...There is evidence that deep breathing reduces glycemia (the concentration of glucose or sugar in the blood) in people with type 2 diabetes, which may make it a useful addition to standard care for this condition” (NCCIH 2022. Stress).
Reviews:
Chaddha et al. 2019. Complement Ther Med. 45:179-84: “Slow breathing showed a modest reduction in blood pressure. It may be a reasonable first treatment for low-risk hypertensive and prehypertensive patients who are reluctant to start medication.”
Hopper et al. 2019. JBI Database System Rev Implement Rep. 17(9):1855-76: “The evidence suggests that diaphragmatic breathing may decrease stress as measured by physiologic biomarkers, as well psychological self-report tools. “
Guided imagery
“Imagery (also called guided imagery or visualization) is an alternative therapy where the patient is taught by a trained practitioner to evoke certain mental images, sounds, tastes, smells, or other sensations associated with certain therapeutic aims...often recommended as a symptomatic therapy for a range of conditions and is normally used in addition to other treatments...It is easy to use and can be learned quickly and economically, for instance, in groups or via a video...Imagery is said to alleviate symptoms such as pain, stress, anxiety and low mood...Proponents of guided imagery also claim that this technique can improve general health, creativity, and mental health as well as physical performance...Imagery is normally a safe therapy. Yet in some people, guided imagery can exacerbate or aggravate mental and physical conditions; for example, it can worsen the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, phobias, and other mental problems” (Ernst 2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Modalities).
Ernst (2023 Apr 4. Edzard Ernst blog) wrote, “I happen to think that guided imagery is a promising albeit under-researched therapy. Therefore, I am particularly frustrated to see that the few trials that do emerge of this option are woefully inadequate to determine its value.”
Reviews:
Meeus et al. 2015. Clin Rehabil. 29(3):221-33 [chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia]: “There is moderate evidence for the acute effect of guided imagery on pain, although the content of the visualization is a matter of debate.”
Giacobbi et al. 2015. Pain Manag Nurs. 16(5):792-803: “Guided imagery appears to be beneficial for adults with AORD [arthritis and other rheumatic diseases].”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: positive. Safety: positive. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: positive.
Laughter therapy
“Laughter or humour therapy is the use of laughter for therapeutic purposes. Laughter therapy is mostly practised in groups. In some hospitals, clowns are also employed for laughter therapy of children. The contagious nature of laughter is used to make participants laugh. Consequently, they relax which can have positive effects on health” (Ernst 2024 Sep 14. Edzard Ernst blog).
“Laughter is said to decrease blood levels of cortisol, epinephrine, growth hormone, and 3,4-dihydrophenylacetic acid (a major dopamine catabolite), indicating a reversal of the stress response. Laughter therapy is claimed to provide physical benefits, such as helping to:
Relax muscles throughout the body
Trigger the release of endorphins (the body’s natural painkillers)
Relieve pain
Improve mental functions (i.e., alertness, memory, creativity)
Improve overall attitude and well-being
Reduce stress/tension
Improve sleep
Strengthen social bonds and relationships.
“Many of these outcomes are, however, not as well-documented as claimed by proponents...
So, there is a surprising amount of encouraging evidence. But there is also a void of answers to important questions, e.g.:
How do the effects compare to conventional treatments?
How long do the effects last?
How expensive is the treatment?
How easy is it to implement in a hospital setting?” (Ernst 2025 Jun 25. Edzard Ernst blog).
Reviews:
Mora-Ripoll 2010. Altern Ther Health Med. 16(6):56-64: “Although there is not enough data to demonstrate that laughter is an all-around healing agent, this review concludes that there exists sufficient evidence to suggest that laughter has some positive, quantifiable effects on certain aspects of health.”
Sridharan and Sivaramakrishnan. 2016. Eur J Pediatr. 175(10):1353-60: “We found that hospital clowns play a significant role in reducing stress and anxiety levels in children admitted to hospitals as well as their parents.”
Zhang et al. 2017. J Paediatr Child Health. 53(3):237-45: “While significant variability existed between studies, the meta-analysis confirmed the effectiveness of pre-operative clown therapy on reducing psychological distress in children and parents.”
Stiwi et al. 2022. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 47:101552: “Laughter-inducing interventions can have beneficial effects on a variety of health-related outcomes including mental health, physical health, and physiological parameters.”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: positive. Safety: positive. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: positive.
Meditation (see also mindfulness and Transcendental Meditation)
"There are many types of meditation, most of which originated in ancient religious and spiritual traditions. Generally, a person who is meditating uses certain techniques, such as focusing attention (for example, on a word, an object, or the breath); a specific posture; and an open mind toward distracting thoughts and emotions. Meditation can be practiced for various reasons - for example, with an intent to increase physical relaxation, mental calmness, and psychological balance; to cope with one or more diseases and conditions; and for overall wellness" (NCCAM 2006. Meditation for health purposes). “Meditation and mindfulness may help reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Meditation may also benefit people with insomnia and those with substance use disorder” (NCCIH 2025. Mind and body practices). “Clinical practice guidelines issued in 2014 by the Society for Integrative Oncology recommend meditation as supportive care to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and fatigue in patients treated for breast cancer” (NCCIH 2022. Stress).
“According to the National Health Interview Survey...the percentage of U.S. adults who practiced meditation more than doubled between 2002 and 2022, from 7.5 to 17.3 percent. Of seven complementary health approaches for which data were collected in the 2022 survey, meditation was the most popular...For children aged 4 to 17 years, data are available for 2017; in that year, 5.4 percent of U.S. children used meditation” (NCCIH 2022. Meditation and mindfulness: Effectiveness and safety).
“Meditation science is now entering a third wave, exploring what we call advanced meditation - deeper and more intense states and stages of practice that often require extended training and can be experienced through increasing mastery. University research programs are being established to study these altered mental states...” (Sacchet and Brewer 2024. Scientific American. 331(1):70-5).
Mechanisms: "Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been used to identify and characterize the brain regions that are active during meditation. This research suggests that various parts of the brain known to be involved in attention and in the control of the autonomic nervous system are activated, providing a neurochemical and anatomical basis for the effects of meditation on various physiological activities...meditation has been shown in one study to produce significant increases in left-sided anterior brain activity, which is associated with positive emotional states. Moreover, in this same study, meditation was associated with increases in antibody titers to influenza vaccine, suggesting potential linkages among meditation, positive emotional states, localized brain responses, and improved immune function" (NCCAM 2007. Mind-body medicine: An overview).
Effects of meditation “are seen primarily in three brain regions: the posterior cingulate cortex, the hippocampus, and the amygdala. The posterior cingulate cortex...is involved in mind wandering and in one’s sense of self. In meditators, this region is quieter than it is in non-meditators...The hippocampus, on the other hand, is responsible for learning, memory, and tasks like planning and problem-solving...In fact, both gray matter and white matter increase in the hippocampus when people meditate regularly...The simultaneous increase in these two tissues therefore mean that the hippocampus becomes better at processing information and faster at conveying that information to other parts of the body. While the long-term meditator’s hippocampus is ‘bulking up’...their amygdala is trimming down. And that’s a positive thing, too, as the amygdala is all about fear and emotional reactivity. In stressful situations, this brain region activates, but thanks to meditation, ‘we see that it becomes less active during threatening conditions,’ [Sarah] Lazar says” (Hurt 2025 Nov/Dec. Discover. 24-5).
Reviews:
Multiple conditions:
Goyal et al. 2014. JAMA Intern Med. 174(3):357-68: “Mindfulness meditation programs had moderate evidence of improved anxiety..., depression..., and pain... and low evidence of improved stress/distress and mental health-related quality of life. We found low evidence of no effect or insufficient evidence of any effect of meditation programs on positive mood, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, and weight. We found no evidence that meditation programs were better than any active treatment (ie, drugs, exercise, and other behavioral therapies).”
Blood pressure:
Pascoe et al. 2017. J Psychiatr Res. 95:156-178: “All meditation subtypes reduced systolic blood pressure. Focused attention meditations also reduced cortisol and open monitoring meditations also reduced heart rate. When all meditation forms were analysed together, meditation reduced cortisol, C-reactive protein, blood pressure, heart rate, triglycerides and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Overall, meditation practice leads to decreased physiological markers of stress in a range of populations.”
Wankhar et al. 2024. Cureus. 16(4):e58434 [meditation, mindfulness, and other mind-body medicine practices]: “The findings of the meta-analysis suggest that MBM interventions may improve systolic blood pressure alone in patients with cardiac diseases. With high heterogeneity and low quality of the included studies, more robust evidence is required before suggesting MBM as an effective treatment modality for reducing blood pressure in cardiovascular diseases.”
Cardiovascular disease:
Rees et al. 2024.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD013358 [primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease]: “Overall, we found very little information on the effects of meditation on CVD clinical endpoints, and limited information on blood pressure and psychological outcomes, for people at risk of or with established CVD.” One of the authors of this review commented, “As our review demonstrates, meditation and similar treatments are not nearly as well supported by evidence as their proponents try to make us believe. In other words, the often-voiced claims that such therapies are effective for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease are largely unfounded” (Ernst 2024 Feb 20. Edzard Ernst blog).
Epilepsy:
Singh et al. 2026. Complement Ther Med. 98:103351: “Meditation appears to be a promising adjunctive therapy for improving psychological well-being and potentially modulating cortical excitability in epilepsy.”
Pain:
Garland et al. 2020. JAMA Intern Med. 180(1):91-105 [opioid-treated pain]: “Moderate to large effect size improvements in pain outcomes were found for meditation...”
Critiques:
Ospina et al. (2007. Evid Rep Technol Assess. (155):1-263) wrote "Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence...TM® [Transcendental Meditation] had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients; RR [relaxation response] was not superior to biofeedback in reducing blood pressure in hypertensive patients; Yoga did not produce clinical or statistically significant effects in blood pressure when compared to nontreatment; Zen Buddhist meditation was no better than blood pressure checks to reduce systolic blood pressure in hypertensive patients. Yoga was no better than physical exercise to reduce body weight in patients with cardiovascular disorders."
Coyne (2019 Apr 1. Science-Based Medicine blog) wrote, “The first thing that strikes me when looking at the evidence on meditation is that it is highly confusing. There seem to be:
a lack of clear definitions,
hundreds of studies, most of which are of poor or even very poor quality,
lots of people with ’emotional baggage’,
plenty of strange links to cults and religions,
dozens of different meditation methods and regimen,
unbelievable claims by enthusiasts,
lots of weirdly enthusiastic followers.
“...once we look at the reliable medical evidence, we are bound to find that the health claims of various meditation techniques are hugely exaggerated. There is almost no strong evidence to suggest that meditation does affect any condition. The small effects that do emerge from some meta-analyses could easily be due to residual bias and confounding; it is not possible to rigorously control for placebo effects in clinical trials of meditation...For me, however, the biggest danger with (certain forms of) meditation is not the risk of psychosis. It is the risk of getting sucked into a cult that then takes over the victim and more or less destroys his or her personality. I have seen this several times, and it is a truly frightening phenomenon
“You would never know the scientific status of meditation from the way it is portrayed in media. Although some cracks are developing in the façade, the media is almost uniformly positive in extolling the benefits of meditation for our mental and physical health, our close relationships, and our work performance. There is a strong message that we are not doing all that we can do to be all we can be unless we are meditating. Yet, the evidence for practicing meditation, rather than doing something else to get the same benefits, is weak...The typical randomized trial of meditation remains a small, unblinded study without an adequate, active treatment comparison/control group. Almost all studies depend on subjective self-report to assess outcomes...The choice of comparison group stacks the deck almost to guarantee positive results, if there is a large enough sample. There is also confirmation bias, as analyses and papers that obtain positive results are more likely to get published.”
“However, much of the research on these topics has been preliminary or not scientifically rigorous. Because the studies examined many different types of meditation and mindfulness practices, and the effects of those practices are hard to measure, results from the studies have been difficult to analyze and may have been interpreted too optimistically” (NCCIH 2022. Meditation and mindfulness: Effectiveness and safety).
A review by Farias et al. (2020. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 142(5):374-93) found that “the occurrence of AEs [adverse effects] during or after meditation practices is not uncommon, and may occur in individuals with no previous history of mental health problems.”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: debatable. Safety: positive. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: debatable.
Mindfulness (see also meditation)
Mindfulness "originated in Buddhism. It is based on the concept of being mindful, or having an increased awareness and total acceptance of the present. While meditating, the meditator is taught to bring all her attention to the sensation of the flow of the breath in and out of the body. The intent might be described as focusing attention on what is being experienced, without reacting to or judging that experience. This is seen as helping the meditator learn to experience thoughts and emotions in normal daily life with greater balance and acceptance" (NCCAM 2006. Meditation for Health Purposes). The concept of mindfulness-based stress reduction was developed in the 1970s by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center.
“Many experts do not consider mindfulness to be an alternative therapy but see it as a set of psychological methods that have long become well-accepted, conventional treatments...Mindfulness programmes are currently popular and have been widely adopted in schools, hospitals, and other settings. They are also being applied to initiatives such as for healthy aging, weight management, athletic performance enhancement, for children with special needs, and as a help during the perinatal period” (Ernst 2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Modalities).
“Although commonly associated with meditation, mindfulness and meditation are not interchangeable terms. Mindfulness meditation encompasses a wide range of practices with varying objectives, whereas mindfulness itself can be conceptualized as a cognitive state, a cultivated disposition, or an intentional practice”(Lizama-Lefno et al. 2026. Healthcare (Basel). 14(2):196).
“Mindfulness-Based Therapies (MBTs) are a set of interventions that integrate meditative practices within psychotherapy, emphasizing acceptance, metacognition, and cognitive flexibility. Among the most established MBTs are Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). Additionally, some third-wave cognitive–behavioral therapies, such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), incorporate mindfulness techniques within broader clinical frameworks” (Ibid.).
“...Mindfulness-based interventions can be conceptually understood as operating through three complementary mechanisms: (a) attentional regulation cultivated by meditation, which enhances present-moment awareness; (b) cognitive restructuring facilitated by psychoeducation, which supports reappraisal and emotional understanding; and (c) behavioral integration achieved through informal practice, which consolidates learned skills into daily life” (Ibid.).
There has been an explosion in research related to mindfulness in recent years, with thousands of papers per year referencing the term.
"There are nearly 1,000 certified MBSR [mindfulness-based stress reduction] instructors teaching mindfulness techniques (including meditation), and they are in nearly every state and more than 30 countries" (Pickert 2014 Feb 3. Time). "But mindfulness has reached far more people than those who have attended an MBSR class. Whereas tens of thousands of individuals have enrolled in an MBSR program, several millions have read or listened to mindfulness self-help books or recordings" (Barker 2014. Soc Sci Med. 106:168-76).
“In a 2012 U.S. survey, 1.9 percent of 34,525 adults reported that they had practiced mindfulness meditation in the past 12 months. Among those responders who practiced mindfulness meditation exclusively, 73 percent reported that they meditated for their general wellness and to prevent diseases, and most of them (approximately 92 percent) reported that they meditated to relax or reduce stress. In more than half of the responses, a desire for better sleep was a reason for practicing mindfulness meditation” (NCCIH 2022. Meditation and mindfulness: Effectiveness and safety).
Reviews:
Multiple conditions:
Coronado-Montoya et al. 2016. PLoS One. 11(4):e0153220): “In summary, MBT [mindfulness-based therapy] appears to be a low-cost and easily implemented treatment that may be useful for providing effective mental health care to the large number of patients who are currently under-served. However, the proportion of positive trials that are reported, despite small sample sizes and low statistical power are concerning.”
Goldberg et al. 2018. Clin Psychol Rev. 59:52-60 [psychiatric disorders]: Mindfulness approaches had similar effectiveness to evidence-based treatments and were superior to no treatment.
Anxiety:
Haller et al. 2021. Sci Rep. 11(1):20385: “In comparison to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), ACT [Acceptance and Commitment Therapy] MBCT [Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy] showed comparable effects on both anxiety outcomes, while MBSR [Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction] showed significantly lower effects...The evidence suggests short-term anxiolytic effects of acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions. Specific treatment effects exceeding those of placebo mechanisms remain unclear.”
Blood pressure:
Intarakamhang et al. 2020. Heliyon. 6(4):e03834: “MBIs [mindfulness-based interventions] can provide effective alternative therapies to assist in blood pressure reduction for patients with NCDs [non-communicable diseases].”
NCCIH 2022. Meditation and mindfulness: effectiveness and safety: “Few high-quality studies have examined the effects of meditation and mindfulness on blood pressure. According to a 2017 statement from the American Heart Association, the practice of meditation may have a possible benefit, but its specific effects on blood pressure have not been determined.”
Cancer:
Zhang et al. 2016. Complement Ther Med. 2016 Jun;26:1-10 [breast cancer]: “Significant positive effects were seen for anxiety, depression, fear of recurrence, and fatigue. Although the effects on stress, spirituality, pain and sleep were in the expected direction, they were not statistically significant (P>0.05). Moreover, there is limited evidence from a narrative synthesis that MBT [mindfulness-based therapy] can improve QOL [quality of life] of breast cancer patients.”
Cillessen et al. 2019. Psychooncology. 28(12):2257-69: “MBIs appear efficacious in reducing psychological distress and other symptoms in cancer patients and survivors. However, many of the effects were of small magnitude, suggesting a need for intervention optimization research.”
Pain:
Hilton et al. 2017. Ann Behav Med. 51(2):199-213 [chronic pain]: “We found low-quality evidence that mindfulness meditation is associated with a small decrease in pain compared with all types of controls...”
Khoo et al. 2019. Evid Based Ment Health. 22(1):26-35 [chronic pain]: “Findings...revealed clinically important advantages relative to control for MBSR [mindfulness-based stress reduction] and CBT [cognitive-behavioral therapy], but no evidence of an important difference between MBSR and CBT was found.”
Anheyer et al. 2019. Cephalalgia. 39(4):544-55 [chronic headache]: “Due to the low number, small scale and often high or unclear risk of bias of included randomized controlled trials, the results are imprecise; this may be consistent with either an important or negligible effect.”
NCCIH 2022. Meditation and mindfulness: effectiveness and safety: “A 2020 report by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality concluded that mindfulness-based stress reduction was associated with short-term (less than 6 months) improvement in low-back pain but not fibromyalgia pain.”
Cardle et al. 2023. J Multidiscip Healthc. 16:515-33: “This umbrella review found mixed results on the effectiveness of MBI for the management of CMSP [chronic musculoskeletal pain] across a range of outcomes (pain, sleep quality, depression, quality of life, physical functioning, mindfulness).”
Sleep:
Rusch et al. 2019. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1445(1):5-16: “These preliminary findings suggest that mindfulness meditation may be effective in treating some aspects of sleep disturbance.”
Substance use disorder:
de Souza et al. 2015. J Altern Complement Med. 21(3):129-40: “Mindfulness appears to induce positive effects on mental health, which might contribute to the maintenance of tobacco abstinence.”
Grant et al. 2017. J Addict Med. 11(5):386-96: “We have limited confidence in estimates suggesting MBRP [mindfulness-based relapsed prevention] yields small effects on withdrawal/craving and negative consequences versus comparator interventions. We did not detect differences for any other outcome.”
Cavicchioli et al. 2018. Eur Addict Res. 24(3):137-62: “MBIs [mindfulness-based interventions] seemed to show clinically significant advantages compared to other clinical approaches in relation to specific primary and secondary outcomes.”
Weight loss:
Rogers et al. 2017. Obes Rev. 18(1):51-67: “Mindfulness-based interventions may be both physically and psychologically beneficial for adults who are overweight or obese, but further high-quality research examining the mechanisms of action are encouraged.”
Carrière et al. 2018. Obes Rev. 19(2):164-77: “Results suggest that MBIs are effective in reducing weight and improving obesity-related eating behaviours among individuals with overweight and obesity. Further research is needed to examine their efficacy for weight loss maintenance.”
Critiques:
Novella (2017 Oct 18. Science-Based Medicine blog), citing Van Dam et al. (2018. Perspect Psychol Sci. 13(1):36-61), wrote: “As the authors point out, there are significant problems with the mindfulness research and the overhyped claims that are being made for this intervention. Problems begin with the very first criterion of science-based practice – lack of an operational definition...Mindfulness research, as the authors point out, is plagued by a lack of a consistent definition, or one that can be operationalized for research. What is/are the critical component(s) of mindfulness? Is it relaxation, introspection, being in the moment, directing one’s attention, avoiding mind-wandering, or something else?...
“Having followed the mindfulness research for years and discussed it with many proponents, the response is largely the same. The details of specific variables are either poorly understood or debated, and don’t seem to really matter. As long as there is a perceived subjective benefit, that is sufficient justification...Mindfulness, in various studies, can refer to alleged specific mental phenomena such as: ‘psychological distancing/reperceiving, decentering and inhibitory control, nonconceptual discriminatory awareness, acceptance and reintegration, or focused attention, decentering, and meta-awareness.’ That is a pretty big umbrella. Proponents have also argued that mindfulness is partly relaxation, partly cognitive therapy, and partly developing vaguely defined mental skills related to the above. This creates a further problem – how do you control for nonspecific results. This gets to the second major issue that the reviewers and others have, most studies of mindfulness are poorly controlled or methodologically weak. Some lack a control group at all. The best studies have active controls, attempting, for example, to control for simple relaxation. But these best studies tend to have the most modest results (a meta-pattern important to note)...
“Likewise I would say that relaxation has health benefits and cognitive therapy potentially has psychological benefits. Mindfulness, taken broadly, seems to be a reasonable practice for relaxation and may have some effects similar to cognitive behavioral therapy. But I am not convinced by the existing research that there is any other phenomenon at work here, that there is something specific to mindfulness, or that it has benefits beyond other similar behaviors.”
Ernst (2022 Feb 12. Edzard Ernst blog) wrote “If you are an advocate of mindfulness, you probably conclude that your pet therapy is supported by reasonably sound evidence. If, however, you think a little more critically, you would probably see that the evidence is far from strong. The effect size is usually small and of doubtful clinical relevance. This is, I think, important because clinical trials of mindfulness cannot easily control for placebo effects...Therefore, the small effects that do emerge in systematic reviews/meta-analyses are most likely the result of a placebo response and not due to mindfulness per se.
“My conclusion is therefore not nearly as positive as that of fans of mindfulness: the collective evidence suggests to me that the success of mindfulness relies mostly or even entirely on the placebo effect. And this means that even dozens of further systematic reviews are not going to advance our knowledge significantly. What is needed, I think, is a few truly rigorous studies aimed at determining whether the effects of mindfulness are specific or non-specific in nature. My prediction is that, once we have this evidence, the current hype around mindfulness will calm down.”
Jarry (2024 Jan 19. McGill Office for Science and Society) commented: “The kicker is that mindfulness is rarely shown to be better than an active control. Many authors of systematic reviews of the evidence will excitedly report that mindfulness showed a small but significant benefit over people in the control group, before quietly adding that there was no difference when mindfulness was strictly compared to active control groups. The conclusion here is that doing something - anything, it would seem - is better than doing nothing...Even when researchers put mindfulness’ best foot forward, the effect it seems to have is small. Despite an accumulation of ho-hum results, I read many discussion sections of papers and quite a few editorials spinning essentially negative results into enthusiasm for future research. This is a good example of the white hat bias, which is when information is distorted because the goal is seen as righteous. It would be great if mindfulness meditation could credibly treat anxiety, insomnia, and pain perception! Thus, many scientists in the field seem intent on proving that mindfulness is good...Sometimes, researchers will report that mindfulness improved a composite score in participants, meaning an aggregate of different measures like anxiety, depression, and stress...but the benefits disappeared when looking only at anxiety or depression...
“Beyond these problems, there is the crucial difference between efficacy and effectiveness...The efficacy of mindfulness is when the intervention is done under ideal conditions; its effectiveness is how it fares in the real world. Those world-famous apps to help you meditate? Maybe they work a little bit, but they certainly don’t work if you don’t use them. When deployed in the context of a study, a quarter of participants abandon them during the study itself...Outside of research projects in which people are told to use a meditation app, the numbers are even worse...For those who stuck with it, the average duration of meditating was less than four minutes a day.”
Lizama-Lefno et al. (2026. Op. cit.) Noted that “Research has consistently indicated that the impact of mindfulness-based interventions is often overstated, particularly when compared with well-established treatments such as cognitive-behavioral therapy. Additionally, when assessing mindfulness-based interventions, it remains unclear which specific components drive therapeutic outcomes and how these interact with other psychological processes.”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: positive. Safety: positive. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: positive.
Music Therapy
Certain types of music appear capable of lowering heart rate and blood pressure, reducing need for anesthesia, etc. Music also be used to assist in physical or neurological therapy.
“Active music therapy comprises a large group of interventions, which involve the patient’s active participation through activities like singing, composing, playing an instrument, and active music imagery, among others. On the other hand, receptive music therapy only requires for the patient to listen music” (Martin-Saavedra et al. 2018. Complement Ther Med. 41:81-9).
“The neurobiological basis of music’s analgesic effect has been studied extensively. Music listening involves several cortical and subcortical areas related to pain modulation like the gray periaqueductal matter. It has been reported that music modifies brain activity during pain stimulation, supporting its analgesic effect” (Ibid.).
“Music therapy is an alternative treatment for patients with aphasia in a noninvasive manner and commonly involves melodic intonation therapy (MIT). MIT is a language production therapy for severe aphasic patients as a method of inducing verbally phrases using intonation (rising and falling of speech) or rhythm (beat or speed), which is a type of reorganization language rehabilitation with stimulation functions of the nondominant hemisphere. The patients are encouraged to mimic the typical melody or rhythm patterns using the remaining humming function and say words, short phrases, or sentences, and the length of the target utterance is gradually extended” (Yang et al. 2019. J Altern Complement Med. 25(10):993-1004).
The idea of the Mozart effect arose from a small 1993 study of college students, apparently showing improved ability on one type of cognitive test after listening to 10 minutes of a Mozart piece. The study attracted widespread media attention, leading to unfounded claims and extrapolation to other situations (such as playing classical music to babies to make them smarter). Jarry (2024 Mar 8. McGill Office for Science and Society) wrote “Many researchers tried to reproduce the Mozart effect study in one way or another, and in 1999, the journal Nature published a scathing meta-analysis of 16 of these studies. Listening to ten minutes of Mozart’s music did not enhance general intelligence, although there was a small improvement in a person’s ability to transform visual images in their mind, the effect that had been claimed in the original study. But this was one specific task, and the effect was much smaller than originally reported and not even statistically significant...It's fair to say that by 2010 we had our answer. The largest meta-analysis done on this topic came up empty...Except that legends never truly die, and the Mozart effect has now shifted to being portrayed as a boon to people dealing with epilepsy...Two recent reviews of the data, however, show that the studies are not very good, and most come from a single group of researchers. Listening to Mozart ‘may,’ we are told, reduce seizures in people with epilepsy, but I would not trust such preliminary results.”
A review by Oberleiter et al. (2023. Sci Rep. 13(1):3175) concluded “In all, listening to music, let alone a specific kind of sonata, does not appear to have any beneficial effect on epilepsy. Unfounded authority, underpowered studies, and non-transparent reporting appear to be the main drivers of the Mozart effect myth.“
Reviews:
Sin and Chow 2015. Pain Manag Nurs. 16(6):978-87: “The findings indicated that music therapy, in general, was effective in reducing pain intensity, fatigue, anxiety, and analgesic consumption in gynecological patients during the postoperative period.”
Magee et al. 2017. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD006787: “Music interventions may be beneficial for gait, the timing of upper extremity function, communication outcomes, and quality of life after stroke. These results are encouraging, but more high-quality randomised controlled trials are needed on all outcomes before recommendations can be made for clinical practice.”
Martin-Saavedra et al. 2018. Complement Ther Med. 41:81-9: “Results show that music without lyrics is effective for the management of pain.”
Moreira et al. 2018. Dement Neuropsychol. 12(2):133-42 [memory in Alzheimer’s patients]: “Despite the positive outcome of this review, the available evidence remains inconsistent due to the small number of randomized controlled trials.”
Bradt et al. 2021. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD006911: “This systematic review indicates that music interventions compared to standard care may have beneficial effects on anxiety, depression, hope, pain, and fatigue in adults with cancer. The results of two trials suggest that music interventions may have a beneficial effect on anxiety in children with cancer...Most trials were at high risk of bias and low or very low certainty of evidence.”
de Witte M et al. 2022. Health Psychol Rev. 16(1):134-59: “Results showed that music therapy showed an overall medium-to-large effect on stress-related outcomes.”
van der Steen et al. 2025. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD003477: “When compared to usual care, providing people with dementia with at least five sessions of a music-based therapeutic intervention probably improves depressive symptoms and may improve overall behavioural problems at the end of treatment. When compared to other activities, music-based therapeutic interventions may improve social behaviour at the end of treatment. No conclusions can be reached about the outcome of anxiety as the certainty of the evidence is very low. There may be no effects on other outcomes at the end of treatment. There was no evidence of long-term effects from music-based therapeutic interventions.”
NCCIH 2025. Mind and body practices: “Music therapies may be helpful for anxiety, depression, and pain experienced by people undergoing surgery or procedures. Music-based interventions might also help with other symptoms associated with dementia, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson’s disease.”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: positive. Safety: positive. Cost: Risk/benefit balance: positive.
Optimism
A review by Rozanski and others (2019. JAMA Netw Open. 2(9):e1912200) concluded that “optimism is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality.” However, the authors noted that there are studies finding that optimism is associated with better diet and more exercise, which could account for part of the effect.
Prayer and spiritual practices
Spirituality is defined by NCCAM as “an individual’s sense of purpose and meaning to life, beyond material values. Spirituality may be practiced in many ways, including through religion” (CAM at the NIH 2005. 12(1):1-4).
Various studies show beneficial effects of religious faith, prayer, and church attendance in health and recovery from illness, especially in elderly. This need not involve a supernatural explanation, but could be due to effects of positive attitude and social support.
Sloan et al. (1999. Lancet 353(9153):664-7) charged that these studies were seriously flawed; their points were rebutted by Koenig et al. (1999. Int J Psychiatry Med. 29(2):123-31). A later review (Sloan and Bagiella 2002. Ann Behav Med. 24(1):14-21) concluded that “there is little empirical basis for assertions that religious involvement or activity is associated with beneficial health outcomes.” Again, there was a rebuttal: Weaver et al. (2003. Altern Ther Health Med. 9(6):42-6). King et al. (1999. Social Science & Medicine 48(9):1291-9), found that stronger religious belief was associated with poorer outcome in hospitalized patients.
Blumenthal et al. (2007. Psychosom Med. 69(6):501-8) wrote that "We found little evidence that self-reported spirituality, frequency of church attendance, or frequency of prayer is associated with cardiac morbidity or all-cause mortality post AMI [acute myocardial infarction] in patients with depression and/or low perceived support."
Intercessory prayer is discussed in the article "Faith healing and other topics related to religion."
Progressive muscle relaxation
In progressive muscle relaxation, muscles are sequentially tensed and relaxed.
“Studies have shown that progressive muscle relaxation may produce stress-alleviating effects, as well as have a positive effect on anxiety and depression in some people” (NCCIH 2022. Stress).
Relaxation
“Relaxation techniques are practices to help bring about the body’s ‘relaxation response,’ which is characterized by slower breathing, lower blood pressure, and a reduced heart rate. The relaxation response is the opposite of the stress response...Listed below are some of the different types of relaxation techniques.
Progressive Relaxation: Also called progressive muscle relaxation, this technique involves tensing different muscles in your body and then releasing the tension.
Autogenic Training: Through a series of mental exercises involving relaxation and ideas you suggest to yourself (autosuggestion), your mind focuses on your body’s experience of relaxation.
Guided Imagery or ‘Visualization’: In guided imagery, you picture objects, scenes, or events that are associated with relaxation or calmness and attempt to produce a similar feeling in your body.
Biofeedback-Assisted Relaxation: Through feedback that is usually provided by an electronic device, you learn how to recognize and manage how your body responds. The electronic device lets you see how your heart rate, blood pressure, or muscle tension changes in response to feeling stressed or relaxed.
Self-Hypnosis: In self-hypnosis programs, people learn to produce the relaxation response when prompted by a phrase or nonverbal cue (called a ‘suggestion’) of their own.
Breathing Exercises: For breathing exercises, you might focus on taking slow, deep breaths—also called diaphragmatic breathing.”
(NCCIH 2021. Relaxation techniques: What you need to know)
Reviews:
Anxiety:
Kim et al. 2018. Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 32(2):278-84: “The results of this study provide evidence for the effectiveness of relaxation therapy for people with anxiety disorders.”
Montero-Marin et al. 2018. Psychol Med. 48(9):1427-36: “Relaxation seems to be less effective than cognitive and behavioural therapies in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder and it might also be less effective at 1-year follow-up for panic, but there is no evidence that it is less effective for other anxiety disorders.”
Pain:
Smith et al. 2018. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD009514 [labor pain]: “Relaxation, yoga and music may have a role with reducing pain, and increasing satisfaction with pain relief, although the quality of evidence varies between very low to low.”
Ju et al. 2019. Exp Ther Med. 18(4):2909-16: “On the whole, despite trials demonstrating the benefits of relaxation therapy for immediate pain relief in patients post-abdominal surgery, there is lack of high-quality scientific evidence substantiating its routine use.”
Thompson 2019. Paediatr Child Health. 24(2):103-114: “The current state of the evidence for relaxation training for management of paediatric headache is both inconsistent and of very low quality.”
Sleep:
Friedrich et al. 2018. J Sleep Res. 27(1):4-22: “The variability of the effect sizes was especially large in the relaxation category, ranging from very small to very large effect sizes...In the future, CBT [cognitive-behavioral therapy] should be combined with relaxation techniques, mindfulness and hypnotherapy.”
“Relaxation techniques are generally considered safe for healthy people. In most research studies, there have been no reported negative side effects. However, occasionally, people report negative experiences such as increased anxiety, intrusive thoughts, or fear of losing control. There have been rare reports that certain relaxation techniques might cause or worsen symptoms in people with epilepsy or certain psychiatric conditions, or with a history of abuse or trauma” (NCCIH 2022. Stress).
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: see specific treatments. Safety: see specific treatments. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: see specific treatments.
Silent repetition
This technique involves repetition of a neutral word or phrase (as in transcendental meditation), or of a meaningful word or phrase (possibly associated with one's religious belief).
Toning
In this technique, vowel sounds are chanted.
Transcendental meditation (see also meditation)
“TM is a mantra meditation technique where consciousness is directed towards repetition of a word, or a phrase as an object of focus. The process allows ‘the ordinary thinking process to become more quiescent and a unique psychophysiological state of “restful alertness” to be gained.’ It has been described as ‘a simple, natural, and effortless procedure, optimally practiced twice a day for twenty minutes while sitting comfortably with the eyes closed.’ The standard TM course offered by the Maharishi Foundation (the TM organization) includes an introductory and preparatory lecture, a one-hour session of personal instruction, and consecutive follow-up sessions over the next three days. After which, the students will practice on their own as a daily routine” (Oi et al. 2017. Complement Ther Med. 34:26-34).
“An individualized mantra is chosen by the teacher using an undisclosed procedure and the novice meditator is instructed to keep it secret...The health claims made for TM are numerous and often far-reaching. TM is claimed to be helpful for most medical conditions as well as for improving performance of school children and other healthy people. The benefits claimed for TM include positive effects on personal development, mental health, physical education, and society more generally. The TM movement has sponsored many studies of TM which invariably report positive effects on human health. These studies are often of deplorable quality, and independent replications frequently cannot confirm their findings...Reports of adverse events of TM are rare, but include exacerbation of pre-existing depression and anxiety, depersonalization, attempted suicide, and precipitation of schizophrenic episodes. This suggests that people with pre-existing mental health conditions should take up meditation only under the supervision of a qualified psychiatrist or psychotherapist experienced in the use of such techniques in therapeutic context. In addition, there is the risk of getting drawn into a cult-like movement” (Ernst 2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Modalities).
Reviews:
Oi et al. 2017. Op. cit.: “Practising TM may potentially reduce the SBP [systolic blood pressure] by ~4mm Hg and DBP [diastolic blood pressure] by ~2mm Hg. Such effect is comparable with other lifestyle interventions such as weight-loss diet and exercise.”
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. CD010359: “Currently, there are few trials with limited outcomes examining the effectiveness of TM for the primary prevention of CVD [cardiovascular disease]. Due to the limited evidence to date, we could draw no conclusions as to the effectiveness of TM for the primary prevention of CVD.” [Review withdrawn due to incorporation into a larger project examining all forms of meditation.]
Gathright et al. 2019. Complement Ther Med. 46:172-9: “TM was associated with within-group (but not between-groups) improvements in BP.”
NCCIH 2022. Stress: “A literature review and scientific statement from the American Heart Association suggest that evidence supports the use of TM to lower blood pressure. However, the review indicates that it’s uncertain whether TM is truly superior to other meditation techniques in terms of lowering blood pressure because there are few head-to-head studies.”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: debatable. Efficacy: negative. Safety: debatable. Cost: debatable. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
Yoga
Yoga is also discussed in the article on Eastern approaches. “Yoga may benefit people’s general wellness by relieving stress, supporting good health habits, and improving mental/emotional health, sleep, and balance. Yoga may also help with low-back pain and neck pain, anxiety or depressive symptoms, quitting smoking, and quality of life for people with chronic diseases” (NCCIH 2025. Mind and body practices).
“Some but not all studies of yoga for stress management have shown improvements in physical or psychological measures related to stress. A 2020 review of 12 studies of a variety of types of yoga for stress management in healthy adults found beneficial effects of yoga on measures of perceived stress (NCCIH 2022. Stress).
PLACEBO EFFECTS
Definition and general features
“The placebo effect represents a complex psychobiological phenomenon wherein patients experience measurable improvements in symptoms after receiving an inert or nonspecific intervention. Although no single universal definition exists, recent consensus guidance adopts working definitions that distinguish placebo treatments, placebo effects, and placebo responses. Placebo treatments are interventions lacking specific pharmacological activity, placebo effects refer to the psychobiological changes they elicit, and placebo responses denote the overall improvement observed in placebo groups, which also includes nonspecific factors such as natural history and regression to the mean. Closely related is the concept of contextual effects, defined as outcome changes that arise from the therapeutic context rather than the intervention’s specific ingredients, including expectations, clinician behavior, treatment rituals, and the care setting” (Tzigkounakis et al. 2025. Cureus. 19(5):e91893).
“Placebo effects are a combination of non-specific effects of the therapeutic interaction, and an illusion of biased perception. Measured placebo effects are generally subjective and short-lived. They result from things like having an improved mood at the expectation of being treated, a positive therapeutic interaction, getting medical attention, and being compliant with treatment. These are non-specific effects, meaning that they derive from the medical interaction, not from any real physiological effect of the treatment itself. The illusory effects include subjective validation, regression to the mean, and confirmation bias. We tend to seek treatment when our symptoms are at their worst, so they are bound to improve. Many illnesses are self-limiting – they will get better on their own, no matter what we do. And we will tend to subjectively interpret our symptoms in line with our expectations and desires, perhaps out of a motivation to justify the decision to seek a specific treatment” (Novella S. 2019 Feb 6. Science-Based Medicine blog).
"The placebo response depends on the subject's beliefs which determine their expectations and response. Their beliefs will depend on the placebo message delivered by the therapist who will usually be enthusiastic and convey an optimistic message by word and body language reinforced by mechanical, electrical stimuli and the 'laying on of hands' as in massage and, in Western and Chinese medicine, simply taking the pulse. The response will also be conditioned by previous beliefs and by peers who offer advice embellished by phrases such as 'I swear by it'" (Wigley 2007. Clin Med (Lond). 7(5):450-2).
“A meta-analysis comparing the effects of placebo interventions across clinical conditions suggested that so-called physical placebos (eg, sham acupuncture or a detuned medical device) were associated with larger placebo effects than pharmacological placebos (eg, an inactive pill)....Examining different clinical conditions, one systematic review found no difference in the magnitude of placebo responses when comparing more and less intense placebo interventions...” (Lunde et al. 2025. Pain 166(10):e314-21).
Waber et al. (2008. JAMA 299(9):1016-7) found that greater placebo effects on pain were seen if subjects thought that the pills were more expensive.
A 2007 survey of U.S. physicians found that about half "reported prescribing placebo treatments on a regular basis" and 62% "believed the practice to be ethically permissible" (Tilburt et al. 2008. BMJ 337:a1938).
“Even if taking a placebo can reduce symptoms such as pain, this isn’t always the best course of action. An apparently trivial pain may, for example, be the first sign of something far more serious. Treating the pain alone may prevent diagnosis by a physician or delay important medical treatments” (Benedetti 2022 May 9. Genetic Literacy Project).
It has been claimed that placebo effects do not apply to animals or babies. However, Novella (2017 Nov 15. Science-Based Medicine blog) pointed out that “There are many sources of placebo effects that do not depend upon the subject knowing they are being treated, such as regression to the mean, the self-limiting nature of many ailments, and non-specific effects or benefits from simultaneous interventions. Further, however, someone has to determine that the animal or baby has improved. That person is vulnerable to biased perception and reporting, and will also contribute to any measured effect.”
How powerful are placebo effects?
Many studies showed positive results in 30 to 70% of patients receiving placebos. However, in a reexamination of the literature, Kienle and Kiene (1997. J Clin Epidemiol. 50(12):1311-8) stated: “Having analyzed a total of 800 articles on placebo, we have not found any reliable demonstration of the existence of placebo effects...There can be no doubt that the extent and frequency of placebo effects as published in most of the literature are gross exaggerations.”
A systematic review by Hróbjartsson and Gøtzsche (2010. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD003974) concluded that “We did not find that placebo interventions have important clinical effects in general. However, in certain settings placebo interventions can influence patient-reported outcomes, especially pain and nausea, though it is difficult to distinguish patient-reported effects of placebo from biased reporting. The effect on pain varied, even among trials with low risk of bias, from negligible to clinically important.”
"Just as responses following drug treatment do not necessarily indicate true drug effects, so responses to placebo do not necessarily constitute placebo effects. Patients receiving placebos either in clinical practice or in clinical trials may have improved, or appeared to have improved, for a variety of reasons other than any causal connection (via some psychological neurobiological mechanism) between the placebo and the outcome. These may include spontaneous remission, the natural course of waxing and waning of symptoms, regression to the mean in repeated measurements, and biased patient reports that do not reflect real improvement" (Miller and Kaptchuk 2008. J Roy Soc Med. 101(5):222-5).
“Not all improvements observed after sham or placebo interventions reflect genuine psychobiological placebo effects. Outcomes can also be shaped by the natural course of illness, regression to the mean, co-interventions, and bias from patients or investigators. Spontaneous recovery or symptom fluctuation may be wrongly attributed to a placebo if no untreated control arm is included. Regression to the mean can likewise mimic treatment effects, but randomization and strict entry criteria reduce this risk. Co-intervention bias arises when participants adopt additional treatments, such as dietary changes or complementary therapies, which influence both experimental and control groups. Patients may also report improvement to please clinicians, and investigators may unconsciously influence assessments” (Tzigkounakis et 2025. Cureus. 19(5):e91893).
“More careful studies, and more critical analysis have taken much of the mystery and potency out of the placebo effect. A variety of biases and statistical artifacts can conspire to create the illusion of a response to the placebo. When carefully controlling for these variables, the placebo effect virtually disappears for objective measures” (Weinberg 2025 Mar 20. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Gorski (2016 Dec 12. Science-Based Medicine blog) noted that “placebo effects can only be quantified in clinical trials, which are, by their nature, highly artificial treatment situations. We at SBM often point out that it’s incorrect to refer to ‘the placebo effect,’ because there is not just one placebo effect. Instead, we refer to placebo effects. Much of what is lumped together as ‘the placebo effect’ include study artifacts that have little or no bearing on real world outcomes and/or modulation of the patient’s perception of his symptoms.”
“Dr. [Christopher] Maher argues that the medical community has become enthralled with the idea of ‘enshrining placebos as mysterious and highly effective,’ even with little evidence of their efficacy in clinical care. Much of the research, Dr. Maher says, has significant flaws that inflate placebos’ strength and reliability as therapeutics. These errors, he says, risk further entrenching the clinical use of placebos when proven treatments remain available, and encouraging entrepreneurs who are trying to cash in on online sales of placebo pills” (Schwartz 2021 Dec 15. New York Times).
“The colour, size and shape of a placebo pill have all been suggested to influence its effect. However, this view does not have a firm basis in science. A key problem is that in many studies evaluating the influence of the appearance of a placebo pill, the participants did not consume the pill or have a health condition” (Maher et al. 2021. Med J Aust. 215(6):252-253.e1).
Mechanisms
“Now, research has shown that placebo responses are mediated by conditioning when unconscious physiological functions such as hormonal secretion are involved, whereas they are mediated by expectation when conscious physiological processes such as pain and motor performance come into play, even though a conditioning procedure is carried out" (NCCAM 2007. Mind-body medicine: An overview).
Placebo effects “can activate specific neurotransmitter systems, including endogenous opioids, dopamine, and cholecystokinin (CCK) pathways. This demonstrates that placebo effects are not merely psychological but also neurobiologically mediated, influencing outcomes across various medical conditions” (Tzigkounakis et al. Op. cit.). "Neurophysiology and neurochemistry suggest that there are multiple placebo effects, with different neurobiological mechanisms, depending on the organ system and the target illness" (Brody and Miller 2011. JAMA. 306(23):2612-3).
“A large body of evidence shows placebos can lead to measurable changes in the brain, particularly MRI studies showing placebos lead to widespread reductions in pain-related brain activity. PET imaging has also shown that placebos can increase dopamine and opioids in the brain, brain chemicals linked to positive experiences and reduced discomfort” (Szalinski 2025 Apr 7. Medscape).
“Two principal frameworks explain placebo effects, expectancy theory and classical conditioning. Expectancy and conditioning are often framed as competing perspectives, yet they can operate jointly...Expectancy theory holds that placebo effects are mediated by explicit, consciously accessible expectancies. A placebo produces change because the recipient anticipates that it will....Applied to placebo effects, the placebo intervention is the conditioned stimulus, and the clinical improvement is the conditioned response” (Tzigkounakis et al. Op. cit.).
Relation to complementary and alternative medicine
“Many alternative therapies seem to rely mostly or entirely on the placebo effect. Some enthusiasts argue that it does not matter how therapy works; even if it works via a placebo effect, it is bound to help a patient. Thus, they believe, even an ineffective (not better than a placebo) therapy has its legitimate place in health care. Yet, this view is questionable, not least because...even effective treatments generate a placebo effect in addition to their specific effect. This means that only generating a placebo response by administering an ineffective alternative therapy cannot be in the best interest of the patient” (Ernst 2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Modalities).
"Some commentators have suggested that alternative therapies with elaborate procedures and distinct environmental cues might have pronounced and clinically significant placebo effects. Recent RCTs of acupuncture, although not designed to study placebo effects, have provided results that lend support to this hypothesis" (Finniss et al. 2010. Lancet. 375(9715):686-95).
“CAM interventions are rich in ritual and contextual cues, and meta-research shows that about half of treatment effects in RCTs may stem from such factors rather than the specific therapy...Among CAM modalities, acupuncture is the most extensively studied. Systematic reviews show that acupuncture frequently outperforms no treatment but offers only small or inconsistent advantages over sham. This pattern may reflect active contributions from somatic stimulation and context in both arms, which compresses between-group differences and complicates attribution of efficacy” (Tzigkounakis et al. Op. cit.).
“...Placebo effects are powerful at convincing people that a treatment works when in fact it doesn’t. This leads to numerous harms – seeking ineffective treatments at considerable cost and lost opportunity, delaying or replacing effective treatment, and leading people to unscientific and even bizarre beliefs about health and disease. This also makes them vulnerable to charlatans, whether knowing or themselves deceived” (Novella S. 2019 Feb 6. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Benedetti (2022 May 9. Genetic Literacy Project) wrote: “The scientific advances in understanding placebo are fascinating. But one unfortunate outcome of all this work is that profit-seeking companies and individuals now have a new weapon: It is no longer necessary to demonstrate the effectiveness of their proposed therapies; it is enough to assert that these work because of the placebo effect.”
Open-label placebos (placebos without deception)
Kaptchuk has published studies reporting beneficial effects of placebos even when patients were told that the pills were placebos ("placebos without deception"). “Since 2008, open-label placebos have shown at least some modest benefit for various types of pain, cancer-related fatigue, allergic rhinitis, major depression, and menopausal hot flashes, among others” (Szalinski 2025 Apr 7. Medscape). A meta-analysis by von Wernsdorff et al. (2021. Sci Rep. 11(1):3855) concluded that “OLPs appear to be a promising treatment in different conditions but the respective research is in its infancy.”
Gorski has criticized the concept, stating that patients are primed by being told that placebos are “powerful” agents that can trigger healing via mind-body interactions. “In other words, ‘placebos without deception’ are not. They’re just placebos, but with subtler deception” (“Orac” 2023 Oct 11. Respectful Insolence blog). In some studies participants were recruited from people interested in mind-body effects and thus more prone to believe in the power of placebos.
“In one trial, a team of researchers, including Professor Kaptchuk, reported that a three-week course of open-label placebo pills offered relief from back pain over the next five years. But, Dr. Maher notes...the study’s authors followed up only with participants who received the placebo, and did not maintain a control group who received nothing - a weakness acknowledged in the study” (Schwartz 2021 Dec 15. New York Times).
“Research on open label placebo has some limitations. A review of open label placebos highlighted the weak evidence base and concluded that it was premature to consider their use in clinical practice. A key concern is that the typical study design biases outcomes. All subjects are extensively briefed on why placebos work, but then those in the control group are told that they will not receive a placebo. The briefings are so extensive that clinical applicability is doubtful...It is also arguable that with such extensive briefings the placebo is not being honestly portrayed as inert. A puzzling pattern is that open label placebo trials typically report much greater effects than trials of closed placebos...It is hard to understand how patients in open label placebo trials, who are told they have no chance of receiving an active substance, would do better than patients in closed label placebo trials, who are told they have some chance of receiving an active substance...there is no evidence that placebos have much to offer for clinical care. When administered in a blinded fashion, a placebo will provide a small effect, but the real treatment will normally provide better outcomes for the patient. A placebo supporter could counter that they could get a bigger placebo treatment effect by dispensing large, red, unusually shaped placebo pills, but they would be basing this on uncertain evidence. It may be better to dismiss placebos and instead manage patients with evidence-based treatments” (Maher et al. 2021. Med J Aust. 215(6):252-253.e1).
“...On learning of the benefits of placebos from their physician (or, just as likely, from the Internet or by word of mouth), individuals could feasibly attempt to ‘self-prescribe’ inert substances to themselves or their children to lessen their use of other medications. Particularly in situations in which drug dosages must be maintained above critical levels over time, such as for antiseizure or hypothyroid medications, independent and unsupervised attempts to cut back or eliminate drug dosages could pose a serious health risk. Finally, it is possible that the prescription of placebo treatments could damage trust in physicians, particularly if carelessly implemented. Although placebos have been suggested as possible treatment options for conditions that currently lack effective therapies...offering what appears to be ‘fake drugs’ for the treatment of these conditions could appear dismissive or delegitimizing of patients’ suffering” (Trogen et al. 2017. Pediatrics. 140(2):e20164328).
Gorski (“Orac”) (2016 Dec 20. Respectful Insolence blog) wrote, “We know placebo effects can be enhanced by empathy and the ‘human touch.’ In other words, good bedside manner matters. That means that we don’t have to lie to patients or exaggerate by calling placebo effects ‘powerful mind-body self-healing’ or other such woo babble...All we have to do is to use empathy and the human touch in concert with real, honest-to-goodness treatments shown through science to be effective against whatever the patient has, no need even for a little shading of the truth or lying about sugar pills (or alternative medicine treatments) to patients.”
Nocebo effect
There is also a nocebo effect, in which a person experiences negative health effects due to negative expectations. This has been proposed as an explanation of some side effects of medications.
“The nocebo is estimated to be responsible for 19-71% of all untoward adverse reactions to a medicinal product. Quite often, both of those effects [placebo and nocebo] cancel each other out in the data collected from the clinical trial participants. Among the subjects who received the placebo, the numbers of reported benefits are comparable to the numbers of reported adverse events due to exposure to an inert substance...Defenders of alternative medicine often repeat some variation of ‘It might be worth to try, even if this does not work! Perhaps the placebo effect will work?’ They neglect to mention the opposite effect is just as likely...shouldn’t an honest proponent of sham treatments also discuss the likelihood of the nocebo effect?” (Witkowski 2021 May 7. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Edzard Ernst rating of placebo effects: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: debatable. Safety: positive. Cost: debatable. Risk/benefit balance: debatable.
HYPNOSIS
Definition and general aspects
Hypnosis can be broadly defined as an altered state of mind associated with greatly increased suggestibility; the exact definition is controversial. Research has attempted to identify changes in the brain associated with the hypnotic state. “Brain scans show that the control mechanisms for deciding what to do in the face of conflict become uncoupled when people are hypnotized. Top-down processes override sensory, or bottom-up information” (Blakeslee 2005 Nov 22. New York Times).
“I was taught in medical school to think of hypnosis not as a trance but as the selective attention/selective inattention (SASI) state produced by strong suggestion” (Hall 2021. Skeptical Inquirer. 45(2):17-9).
The hypnotic state is induced by having subject focus on mental image, object, or soothing voice. The therapist then gives suggestions relating to the desired change in behavior.
"Some 60% of patients are hypnotizable to some degree, [David] Spiegel says; an additional 15%, highly so. The rest seem to be unresponsive" (Song 2006 Mar 26. Time).
“The ability to focus and direct one’s thoughts is undoubtedly very useful in many contexts, but hypnosis is not the only way to achieve that goal. Cognitive behavioral therapy and meditation can accomplish some of the same things” (Hall 2021. Op. cit.).
“Today, there are different schools of hypnotherapy, e.g. Ericksonian hypnotherapy, cognitive behavioural hypnotherapy, curative hypnotherapy. Various different healthcare professionals practise hypnotherapy, including doctors, dentists, psychologists and nurses. Hypnotherapy is used to treat many conditions or symptoms, from pain and stress to irritable bowel syndrome and drug dependency. The evidence from clinical trials is mixed. Most systematic reviews emphasise the often poor-quality of the primary studies...” (Ernst 2026 May 3. Edzard Ernst blog).
The National Guild of Hypnotists “has approximately 20,000 members across the United States and in more than 93 countries” (Wikipedia 2026. National Guild of Hypnotists).
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: debatable. Efficacy: debatable. Safety: debatable. Cost: debatable. Risk/benefit balance: debatable.
Use for different conditions
Multiple conditions: “...A task force of the American Psychological Association validated hypnosis as an adjunct procedure for the treatment of obesity. But the jury is still out on other disorders with a behavioral component. Drug addiction and alcoholism do not respond well to hypnosis, and the evidence for hypnosis as an aid in quitting smoking is equivocal...there is strong, but not yet definitive evidence that hypnosis can be an effective component in the broader treatment of other conditions...these include a subgroup of asthmas; some dermatological disorders, including warts; irritable bowel syndrome; hemophilia; and nausea associated with chemotherapy...claims that hypnosis increases immune function in any clinically important way are at this time unsubstantiated” (Nash 2001. Scientific American. 285(1):47-55). See below for more recent conclusions concerning irritable bowel syndrome, smoking cessation and warts.
Insomnia: Lam et al. (2015. Complement Ther Med. 23(5):719-32) found “hypnotherapy significantly shortened sleep latency compared to waitlist...but no difference compared to sham intervention...Generalizability of the positive results is doubtful due to the relatively small sample size and methodological limitations.” Mamoune et al. (2022. Complement Ther Med. 65:102805) concluded “Our results indicate that the current research concerning the efficacy of hypnosis to relieve insomnia is lacking in key methodological elements.”
Irritable bowel syndrome: “There is evidence that gut-directed hypnotherapy (a type of hypnotherapy in which practitioners make suggestions aimed at allowing people to control and normalize their gastrointestinal functions) can help relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life in people with IBS. Practice guidelines issued in 2021 by the American College of Gastroenterology recommend gut-directed psychotherapies, including gut-directed hypnotherapy, for treating IBS symptoms. This recommendation is conditional, however, based on very low-quality evidence” (NCCIH 2020. Hypnosis). A review by Krouwel et al. (2021. Complement Ther Med. 57:102672) concluded that “high volume hypnotherapy is more beneficial than low and should be adopted for GDH [gut directed hypnotherapy]. Both high frequency and group interventions are effective in reducing GGS [global gastrointestinal symptoms] in IBS. However, the sample size is small and more studies are needed to confirm this.”
Memory: Hypnosis is used as a tool to help recall repressed or "lost" memories. However, hypnosis is not a magic route to the truth; subjects can recall things incorrectly and construct fantasies. (See also “Past life therapy” and “UFO abductee regression” below, and “Recovered memories” in the section “Other unconventional practices related to mental health.”)
Menopausal symptoms: “There is some evidence suggesting that hypnosis may help improve certain menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes. A 2015 position paper from the North American Menopause Society recommended hypnosis for managing hot flashes but acknowledged that favorable evidence is limited” (NCCIH 2020. Hypnosis).
Nausea and vomiting: “Meta-analysis has demonstrated that hypnosis could be a clinically valuable intervention for anticipatory and CINV [chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting] in children with cancer” (Richardson et al. 2007. Eur J Cancer Care (Engl). 16(5):402-12).
Pain: "The typical pain signal follows a well-worn path from the brain stem through the midbrain and into the cortex, where conscious feelings of pain arise. In [Sebastian] Schulz-Stübner's study, the hypnotized group showed subcortical brain activity similar to that of nonhypnotized volunteers, but the primary sensory cortex stayed quiet" (Song 2006 Mar 26. Time). “The pain-relieving effect of hypnosis is often substantial, and in a few cases the degree of relief matches or exceeds that provided by morphine” (Nash 2001. Scientific American. 285(1):47-55).
Hypnosis been tested as an alternative to anesthesia for patients who are allergic to anesthetics, or to be used in conjunction with lower anesthesia levels in order to reduce side effects. "Hypnosis for analgesia is often superior to other non-pharmacologic treatments for producing changes in pain reports. Also, patients undergoing surgery with hypnosis need significantly less chemical analgesia" (Wahbeh et al. 2008. Neurology. 70(24):2321-8).
"...Hypnosis has potential as a clinically valuable intervention for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients" (Richardson et al. 2006. J Pain Symptom Manage. 31(1):70-84).
"...While both structured empathy and hypnosis decrease procedural pain and anxiety, hypnosis provides more powerful anxiety relief without undue cost and thus appears attractive for outpatient pain management" (Lang et al. 2006. Pain. 126(1-3):155-164).
A review of hypnosis for chronic neuropathic pain (McKittrick et al. 2022. Pain Med. 23(5):1015-26) concluded “The evidence is weak because of poor study design, yet encouraging both for analgesia and functional restoration in hard-to-treat chronic neuropathic pain conditions.”
Psychotherapy: “Hypnosis can boost the effectiveness of psychotherapy for some conditions...patients who received cognitive behavioral therapy plus hypnosis for disorders such as obesity, insomnia, anxiety and hypertension showed greater improvement than 70 percent of the patients who received psychotherapy alone” (Nash 2001. Scientific American. 285(1):47-55).
Smoking cessation: A review by Barnes et al. (2019. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6(6):CD001008) found that “There is insufficient evidence to determine whether hypnotherapy is more effective for smoking cessation than other forms of behavioural support or unassisted quitting. If a benefit is present, current evidence suggests the benefit is small at most.”
Warts: “There is no sound evidence that hypnotherapy or any similar treatment will speed up the disappearance of warts” (Ernst 2024 Dec 6. Edzard Ernst blog).
Past life therapy
In this therapy, a hypnotized patient is "regressed" through childhood and then back to alleged previous lives. (Some practitioners even claim to be able to "progress" the subject through future lives!) Events in these lives are held to underlie psychological problems in the present life. As in psychoanalysis, the reliving of these traumatic events is held to be therapeutic. “PLRT [past life regression therapy] is used by some clinicians for anxiety disorders, mood disorders, gender dysphoria, and other conditions” (Ernst 2021 Sep 24. Edzard Ernst blog). A related procedure is age regression, in which a patient is led to return to an earlier stage of their life.
Critique:
The concept of reincarnation is unsupported by scientific evidence, and, if true, would present important philosophical problems. “If patients are not fully informed about these problems, they cannot provide informed consent, and hence, the principle of autonomy is violated” (Ibid.).
Hypnosis is a state of relaxation and compliance, leading to increased suggestibility and desire to please the hypnotist. Under such conditions fantasization can occur. Using fragments of old memories, elements of books and stories, learned historical and geographical information, etc., the subject may create a convincing story, but be unaware of the source of these "hidden memories" (cryptomnesia).
Careful examination of cases of alleged past lives has revealed either historical inaccuracies or inconsistencies, or information which the subject could have obtained readily earlier in life.
As with hypnosis in general, the techniques can be applied by people who have no training in psychotherapy, and may therefore be subject to abuse.
“...Past life regression therapy has the great risk of implanting false memories in patients, and thus, causing significant harm” (Ibid.).
Hall (2016 Jul 26. Science-Based Medicine blog) wrote, “Regression therapists tell many success stories, and that is not at all surprising. Like many other gimmicks, past life regression can encourage patients to recognize problems in their lives, build a narrative that seems to make sense to them, and then hopefully move on to make changes in their lives. Just getting personal attention from a trusted, sympathetic person over several sessions can be helpful. Imagining former lives might help patients boost their egos and feel better about themselves...It might allow them to create a satisfying explanation for the problems that brought them to the therapist and allow them to shift the blame from themselves to something that happened in a previous life. And it certainly is a way of getting patients to work with a therapist. Is it effective? We don’t know. There are no good studies. Is it a valid alternative to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)? We don’t know; no comparison studies have been done...Even if it seems to help some patients, it is known to have harmed others. The recovered memories can be very frightening...One past life regression therapist, Dr. Rakesh Jain, has reported that ‘In some subjects, hypnosis and past life regression can result in side effects which can range from mild to severe one and be temporary or durable’.”
Past life regression therapy “is by no means cheap; a typical session lasts two hours and costs $350" (Ernst 2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Therapies).
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: negative. Cost: negative. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
UFO abductee regression
It has been claimed that thousands of Americans have been abducted by aliens; often they allegedly have been subjected to sexual and reproductive experimentation. These instances are usually "remembered" only after the victims are hypnotically regressed, often many years later. This allegedly can lead to resolution of psychological problems.
Critique:
Problems with the general idea of alien visits include lack of corroborating physical evidence and the vast distances to other stars.
If aliens did visit, why would they contact and abduct obscure individuals rather than government leaders or scientists?
The idea that aliens could interbreed with humans is scientifically preposterous (and if they are so advanced, why would they want to?).
Hypnosis does not necessarily lead to truthful reports; it can be a medium in which fantasy-prone individuals are encouraged to generate stories which will please the hypnotist.
Hypnogogic (when falling asleep) and hypnopompic (when waking up) hallucinations may provide the bases for some reports.
Some individuals may generate the reports to gain the fame (e.g., talk-show appearances) and possible financial rewards that go to "victims." Others may simply find it rewarding to have their normally secretive fantasy lives validated by the investigator.
With the huge numbers of people allegedly abducted, there should have been many witnesses, unless the aliens have mastered such supernatural powers as making people invisible and allowing them to pass through walls.
BIOFEEDBACK
Definition and general aspects
"Biofeedback employs electronic sensors to inform people of variations in physiological processes whose activities are not normally accessible to consciousness (e.g., brain or muscle electrical activity, blood pressure, etc.)" (Beyerstein 1985. Skeptical Inquirer 10(1):42-59). The participants then use their minds to manipulate the process in the desired direction.
There are two major types. On involves measurement of muscle tension, skin temperature (higher temperature are associated with relaxation), or heart rate. These techniques are not controversial (at least for some applications) and have been incorporated into many treatment programs, such as for treatment of chronic pain and migraine headaches, to help regain movement of limbs, and incontinence.
A second type is brain wave biofeedback (or neurofeedback). “EEG neurofeedback is a practice in which individuals purportedly learn how to regulate their brainwaves by viewing real-time recordings of their own brain data. A typical neurofeedback session of 20-30 minutes may consist of an individual sitting in a chair, wearing an electrode cap, and playing a video game that s/he controls in real-time with brainwave data, under the guidance of a provider. The total cost of treatment of up to 40 sessions has been estimated to range from $3,000-10,000...According to one major neurofeedback organization, there are likely over 15,000 providers offering neurofeedback globally” (Nagappan et al. 2021. AJOB Neurosci.12(4):257-69). Often the subject tries to maximize alpha and theta waves, associated with resting, meditation, and creativity, in contrast to beta waves, associated with excitation, stress, or narrowly focused states. Thus, other techniques such as meditation, guided imagery, or psychotherapy may achieve the same results.
Uses of neurofeedback include inspiration of creativity in corporate settings; reduction of stress; improved attention span (and reduced hyperactivity) in children with attention-deficit disorder (here the goal would be to reduce alpha); reduction of depression; recall of repressed memories (memories associated with intense emotional states are held to be linked to theta waves); overcoming addictions; dealing with insomnia and phobias; and dealing with head injuries, cerebral palsy, autism, and epilepsy. Many of these applications are controversial, and benefits are not well documented. See below (“Uses for different conditions”) for further information.
“Electroencephalography (EEG) neurofeedback is offered by hundreds of practitioners in the United States (U.S.) to treat a variety of clinical indications, even though there is little evidence of efficacy for many of its advertised uses” (Nagappan et al. 2021. Op. cit.). Wexler et al. (2020. J Cogn Enhanc. 4(4):379-88) surveyed website claims of neurofeedback providers in the U.S. “We found that nearly all websites (97.0%) contained claims about at least one clinical indication, most commonly anxiety, ADHD/ADD, and depression; however, only 36.0% of providers had either a medical degree (MD) or a doctoral-level degree in psychology...Although major neurofeedback societies such as ISNR [International Society for Neurofeedback] and AAPB [Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback] do not explicitly refer to neurofeedback as CAM [complementary and alternative medicine] - both highlight linkages to medicine, psychology, and nursing - three-quarters of providers in our sample seemed to align themselves with CAM, as evidenced by the frequent use of terms such as ‘holistic,’ ‘natural,’ and ‘drug-free.’ Indeed, many websites portrayed neurofeedback an alternative to medication or pharmaceuticals, as an effective procedure that ‘our doctors aren’t telling us about.’ The linkage between neurofeedback and CAM was also evidenced by the provision of other therapies that are not commonly used in mainstream medicine...”
“In the case of neurofeedback, training may vary widely. Many providers possess a ‘board certified in neurofeedback’ (BCN) certification that is offered by the Biofeedback Certification International Alliance (BCIA), which requires 25 hours of mentoring and 100 neurofeedback sessions, yet devotes only 2 of the 36 hours of didactic education to the ‘research evidence base for neurofeedback.’ Furthermore, given that the BCN certification is open to those with bachelor’s degrees in fields such as speech pathology and sports medicine, it is unclear whether neurofeedback providers have the minimum competency to provide therapies for many of the promoted clinical indications...in prior empirical work examining neurofeedback clinics in the U.S., we found that only a fraction of practitioners (3.9%) held MDs; many (32.1%) held PhDs in psychology, and the remainder reported being licensed mental health counselors, licensed social workers, or did not provide any information about a degree or license in their directory listings...it appears that licensed psychologists, mental health counselors, and social workers who provide neurofeedback services to treat psychological or mental health indications would be operating within their scope of practice...However, given that we found that many neurofeedback providers in our prior sample claimed to treat other indications - such as neurological issues (e.g., traumatic brain injury, stroke, epilepsy), autism, and pain - it appears likely that at least some providers may be operating outside their scope-of-practice” (Nagappan et al. 2021. Op. cit.).
A critical evaluation of neurofeedback was provided by Beyerstein (1985. Skeptical Inquirer. 10(1):42-59). Some of his points:
Just because alpha is associated with a certain state doesn't mean that it causes it.
An increase in alpha during a session may simply be due to decrease in the novelty of the initial situation, in addition to the relaxation that occurs with time in the quiet, monotonous setting.
About 10-15% of normal subjects did not produce any alpha, yet seemed no more stressed than others. Conversely, some very anxious individuals had high alpha.
In one study, subjects could be induced to increase alpha under stressful conditions (threat of electric shock).
There is a possible effect of distraction in pain control.
Some subjects reported transcendent experiences when given feedback to suppress alpha.
Wexler et al. (2022. Op. cit.) concluded “While in principle, neurofeedback is worthy of receiving additional attention if tested with solid study designs and by independent researchers, given the current state of the science, there remain questions regarding the efficacy beyond a placebo for EEG neurofeedback. Thus, the results of our study - which point to exaggerated claims for indications for which there is little rigorous research - raise concerns regarding the misrepresentation of services and misleading advertising claims. This is especially notable in light of the fact that some clinics appear to be specifically targeting vulnerable populations, such as parents of children with disorders, and given that the financial costs of neurofeedback are not typically covered by insurance.”
Various electronic devices are also used to induce relaxation and produce desired brain states. These may be used in practitioners' offices, in stress-reduction salons, or in the home. The FDA has taken action against some of these. They can produce seizures in some individuals, even with no prior history of epilepsy or seizures.
ThetaHealing “is a meditation technique and spiritual philosophy that uses focused thought and prayer. We believe our training method offers physical, emotional, and spiritual healing by tapping into the Theta brain wave and connecting with the Creator Of All That Is. When we experience this connection, we can reprogram our minds to clear limiting beliefs and think positively” (ThetaHealing N.D. What is ThetaHealing). “The ‘theta’ in ‘ThetaHealing®’ refers to a type of brain wave resulting in a ‘state of very deep relaxation,’ according to the website. It is the tell-tale sign of the subconscious, we read, and accessing it increases your chances for instant healing...Its founder [Vianna Stibal] was successfully sued for fraud over a degree she was offering in ThetaHealing® and she has said she thinks her healing method can regrow limbs and organs. The only study of ThetaHealing® published in the scientific literature did not show that experienced ThetaHealers® increased their theta activity, but actually that this activity went down” (Jarry 2019 Aug 1. McGill Office for Science and Society).
Edzard Ernst rating of ThetaHealing: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: positive. Cost: debatable. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
Uses for different conditions
Multiple conditions: Allen (2004. Ped Annals. 33(4):241-5) wrote, “Research demonstrated that biofeedback can be an effective treatment for a variety of stress-related disorders, including chronic headaches, hypertension, Raynaud’s disease, irritable bowel syndrome, and fibromyalgia.” However, Kalokairinou et al. (2022. J Med Ethics. 48(12):1037-43) wrote “Although more than 15000 providers globally offer the therapy for numerous clinical indications, evidence for the effectiveness of EEG neurofeedback remains contested. The technique is not recommended by any professional physician society, and neurofeedback research has been widely criticised for its weak methodology and lack of rigour, as most studies have not used double-blinding and sham controls.”
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: "Studies employing rigorous experimental designs have mostly been conducted in the context of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and have demonstrated that participants who received genuine neurofeedback display equivalent improvements to those of the sham group” (Kalokairinou et al. 2022. Op. cit.).
“Although there have been several studies of neurofeedback with positive effects, results are promising but nonconclusive because of design variations and flaws. For example, most positive findings have been shown in non-RCTs. Double-blind pilot RCTs have failed to demonstrate the superiority of neurofeedback over controls; however, even those that have demonstrated superiority lacked power and standardized neurofeedback protocols. Furthermore, neurofeedback can be difficult to blind requiring substantial resources to study it effectively. Even with excellent blinding, the 2 largest randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trials of neurofeedback did not find significant effects of neurofeedback compared with controls at 13-month follow-up” (Zulauf-McCurdy et al. 2023. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 44(4):e322-32).
Hypertension: “A 2018 review found that relaxation therapies and biofeedback might be helpful for reducing blood pressure, but only weak recommendations were made for their use because the quality of data from the 29 studies ranged from low to very low” (NCCIH 2022. Stress).
Irritable bowel syndrome: A systematic review by Goldenberg et al. (2019. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019(11):CD012530) concluded “There is currently not enough evidence to assess whether biofeedback interventions are effective for controlling symptoms of IBS. Given the positive results reported in small trials to date, biofeedback deserves further study in people with IBS.”
CAUSES AND TREATMENT OF AUTISM
Causes
The dramatic increase in diagnosed cases of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in recent decades has led to a corresponding increase in the use of unconventional methods for treatment, and in proposed causes that are scientifically questionable. There is now good evidence for a genetic component to autism. “The strongest predictor of autism is genetics. Twin studies show that if one identical twin has ASD, the other has a 90–99% chance as well, compared with 31–67% for fraternal twins. That’s consistent with an average genetic heritability of 83%. Non-twin siblings have about a 20% likelihood of ASD, which is a seven-fold increase over the general population...Over 100 genes have been implicated, many involved in early brain development and neural communication” (Love 2025 Sep 23. ImmunoLogic blog). Environmental factors in early development may also play a role. Thus, attempts to cure autism through methods such as chelation therapy or special diets are implausible.
“What the data show is that over the last 30 years there are at least three factors that contribute to an increase in the number diagnosed, even without a true increase in incidence. First, the definition has been broadened (hence the term ‘spectrum’), and has absorbed other diagnoses, such as Aspergers Syndrome and pervasive developmental delay. Sometimes this is referred to as diagnostic substitution. Second, surveillance efforts have increased dramatically. More children are getting formal testing for autism, for example. Autism diagnoses also tend to follow the availability of services for children with autism. Generally speaking, if you look for something more, you will find it more. Further, having an autism diagnosis is now considered much more socially acceptable, with less associated stigma, than in the past. This correlates with greater community awareness of the diagnosis and the services available. The bottom line is that 30 years ago many children who today would be diagnosed with ASD would have just been considered ‘odd,’ not formally tested, not identified or diagnosed, and not provided any services or accommodations. Many others would have been given alternate diagnoses. These factors combined are capable of explaining the rise in autism diagnoses. In other words – there is no true epidemic” (Novella 2026 Feb 11. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Secretary of Health and Human Services Robert F. Kennedy Jr. and other anti-vaccine activists reject genetic explanations and attribute the increase in autism cases to vaccines and environmental “toxins.” Here are some causes that have been proposed:
Acetaminophen (Tylenol, paracetamol): In April 2025 Kennedy announced an initiative to find the environmental causes of autism by September. In a September press conference, he announced that use of Tylenol by pregnant women was one such cause. “Several medical organizations, including the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the American Academy of Pediatrics, swiftly condemned these statements as ‘irresponsible’ and not backed by sound scientific evidence. They emphasized that a causal link between paracetamol and autism has not been established” (Ernst 2025 Sep 23. Edzard Ernst blog).
“The proof that Trump, RFK Jr, and MAHA allies are using to claim Tylenol causes autism is a paper published in BMC Environmental Health in August. The paper does not prove this, and it isn’t new data. It’s actually a very poor review of existing studies that tries to claim a link between Tylenol use in pregnancy and autism that the studies themselves don’t support...It still discards or downplays the largest, most rigorous studies that show no association, including a recent cohort study in JAMA that included nearly 2.5 million children and compared between siblings, an incredibly strong normalization method” (Love 2025 Sep 23. ImmunoLogic blog).
Circumcision: One study found a correlation between circumcision and autism; this was attributed to use a acetaminophen (see above) to deal with the pain. “Other subsequent, more rigorous studies have found no evidence to support a link between either circumcision or Tylenol use and autism” (Ernst 2025 Oct 10. Edzard Ernst blog).
Glyphosate: An herbicide (marketed as Roundup) that has been claimed to be responsible for several diseases. There is no good evidence linking it to autism.
Lithium: A 2023 study found an association between autism and levels of lithium in drinking water.
Mercury: see vaccines
Metals: In addition to mercury, toxic levels of other metals such as lead, tin, thallium, and antimony are alleged to be associated with autism.
Microbiome: “The idea that the gut microbiome causally contributes to autism has gained currency in the scientific literature and popular press. Support for this hypothesis comes from three lines of evidence: human observational studies, preclinical experiments in mice, and human clinical trials. We critically assessed this literature and found that it is beset by conceptual and methodological flaws and limitations that undermine claims that the gut microbiome is causally involved in the etiology or pathophysiology of autism” (Mitchell et al. 2026. Neuron. 114(2):196-211).
Vaccines: Antivaccination activists have proposed that mercury or other components of vaccines are responsible for the increase in autism. However, numerous studies have demonstrated no link to vaccines. This is discussed in more detail in the section ”Antivaccination efforts" in the article "Overview of complementary and alternative medicine."
Treatments - overview
Some surveys have found that 30% to 75% of autistic children are treated with alternative methods; one by Owen-Smith et al. (2015. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 17:40-51) found that "Approximately 88% of the sample had either used CAM in the past or had recently used some type of CAM." These authors noted that "many children with ASD may be concurrently taking both vitamins/supplements and prescription psychotropic medications and thus may be at risk for possible interactions." Many children take ten or more supplements.
“It is most notable that families reported that they rarely asked physicians for information about CAM. The proliferation of Internet-based lay communities and Web sites that are promoting untested treatments have increased the exposure of families to large volumes of information about treatments with potential harm" (Levy and Hyman 2015. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am. 24(1):117-43).
“Gastrointestinal disturbances are commonly encountered comorbidities that are thought to be not only another symptom of ASD but to also play an active role in modulating the expression of social and behavioral symptoms. Therefore, nutritional interventions are used by a majority of those with ASD both with and without clinical supervision to alleviate gastrointestinal and behavioral symptoms. Despite a considerable interest in dietary interventions, no consensus exists regarding optimal nutritional therapy. Thus, patients and physicians are left to choose from a myriad of dietary protocols” (Karhu et al. 2020. Nutr Rev. 78(7):515-31).
A review by Doherty et al. (2025. J Autism Dev Disord. 55(10):3689-99) found that “the main interventions used were dietary interventions and nutraceuticals, including targeted supplements, vitamins and minerals, omega 3 s and prebiotics, probiotics and digestive enzymes...There has been a noticeable shift over the last 10 years from CAM interventions that are particularly based on exclusion, such as the exclusion of certain foods, to an evolution to less invasive, more supportive treatments that are focused on the inclusion of functional foods and nutraceutical supplements as discussed in the results of this systematic review...An increasing shift to the use of nutraceuticals such as sulforaphane, coenzyme Q10, prebiotics and strain specific probiotics is noted, with no studies included in this review on previous ‘first line’ CAM supports for autism such as zinc, magnesium and Vitamin B6. This may reflect an evolution of CAM research shifting from general one size fits all ‘protocols’ for autistic people, to more targeted, personalised interventions.”
Concerning the rationale for some dietary supplements, Dobrachinski et al. (2025. Behav Brain Res. 492:115653) wrote “Recent evidence points to the neuroinflammatory process as an essential factor in the development and progression of ASD. In this context, dietary supplements such as melatonin, omega-3 fatty acids, Folic acid, vitamin D, and Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) have been strongly considered as adjunctive treatments by pediatricians...In parallel with neuroinflammation, oxidative stress has been identified as a key contributor to the pathophysiology of ASD. Several studies have reported increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and compromised antioxidant defenses in individuals with ASD, indicating a persistent redox imbalance.” Thus, antioxidant supplements may suggested as a treatment.
Lindly et al. (2018. J Autism Dev Disord. 48(5):1803-18) noted that “parental use of CHA [complementary health approaches] for children with ASD often incurs even greater out-of-pocket costs for families belonging to a subgroup that is already likely to experience high financial burden.”
Treatments - multiple and specific
Reviews of multiple treatments:
Brondino et al. 2015. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat Med. 2015:258589: "There is no conclusive evidence supporting the efficacy of CAM therapies in ASD. Promising results are reported for music therapy, sensory integration therapy, acupuncture, and massage."
Stewart et al. 2015. J Acad Nutr Diet. 115(8):1237-48: found that dietary supplements frequently given to children with autism did not correct common micronutrient deficiencies; rather, they provided excessive levels of certain nutrients.
Klein and Kemper 2016. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 46(6):195-201: “Given their risks, costs, and limited evidence of efficacy, chelation, secretin, and hyperbaric oxygen should be avoided.”
Hourston and Atchley 2017. J Altern Complement Med. 23(5):331-9: “The evidence for mind-body therapies for people with ASD is limited and would benefit from larger randomized controlled trials.”
Fraguas et al. 2019. Pediatrics. 144(5):e20183218: “Dietary supplementation (including omega-3, vitamin supplementation, and/or other supplementation), omega-3 supplementation, and vitamin supplementation were more efficacious than the placebo at improving several symptoms, functions, and clinical domains. Effect sizes were small...This meta-analysis does not support nonspecific dietary interventions as treatment of ASD but suggests a potential role for some specific dietary interventions in the management of some symptoms, functions, and clinical domains in patients with ASD.”
Narzisi et al. 2021. Nutrients. 13(6):2068: “...There is a lack of sufficiently robust evidence to support specific dietary interventions in children with ASD, although some small, documented real research-based opportunities (e.g., vitamin D3; SGS [sulforaphane glucosinolate]) may open interesting glimmers.”
Amadi et al. 2022. Psychiatriki. 33(3):228-42: “...Antioxidants/polyphenolic compounds decreased the levels of inflammatory cytokines and improved behavioural symptoms. Probiotics improved behavioural and GI symptoms as well as restored gut microbiota equilibrium. Prebiotics decreased levels of inflammatory cytokines, improved behavioural and GI symptoms and improved gut microbiota. Vitamin D improved behavioural symptoms and offered protective effects against neurotoxicity. Camel milk reduced inflammatory responses and oxidative stress.”
NCCIH 2024. Autism: “Complementary and integrative approaches are used by many individuals and families, including animal-assisted, arts (music, art, drama, dance), acupuncture, massage therapy, yoga, and exercise-based therapies. Research suggests that these approaches can be helpful in treating hypersensitivity, reducing anxiety, and improving social skills and mental health. Further research is needed on complementary and integrative health approaches to establish beneficial outcomes for individuals with autism. There is no scientific evidence that secretin (a gastrointestinal hormone), hyperbaric oxygen, chelation therapies, or antifungal agents can help people with autism. These treatments are not FDA-approved for autism, and inappropriate or off-label use may be harmful...Studies have examined omega-3 fatty acids, acupuncture, massage therapy (including qigong massage), and the hormone oxytocin. It’s not clear whether these approaches improve health and well-being for people with autism, and they should not be used in place of conventional treatments.”
Gosling et al. 2025. Nat Hum Behav. 9(12):2610-9: “We found no high-quality evidence to support the efficacy of any CAIM [complementary, alternative and integrative medicine] for core or associated symptoms of autism. Although several CAIMs showed promising results, they were supported by very low-quality evidence. The safety of CAIMs has rarely been evaluated, making it a crucial area for future research.” Among the approaches with some support were music therapy, animal-assisted interventions, transcranial direct current stimulation, melatonin, and oxytocin.
Doherty et al. 2025. J Autism Dev Disord. 55(10):3689-99: “...For autistic people, vitamin and mineral supplements may only be of benefit if there is a deficiency...The evidence does not support some of the most frequently utilised dietary interventions, such as a Gluten Free Casein Free (GFCF) diet, and the use of targeted nutraceutical supplements may be of benefit, but more conclusive research is still required to direct safe and effective treatment...There were no studies included in this review on Dimethylglycine (DMG), N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) or Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), all novel nutraceutical approaches that currently have limited research to support their use by autistic people but warrant further review as potentially valid and safe CAM supports.”
Shi et al. 2026. Res Dev Disabil. 171:105270: “We found that dietary interventions significantly improved overall symptoms..., communication..., social interaction..., and hyperactivity...Vitamin D showed the most significant effect on overall symptoms of ASD...However, dietary intervention did not show significant improvement in four outcomes: stereotypical behaviour, irritability, lethargy, and inappropriate speech.“
Shi et al. 2026. J Nutr. 156(5):101490: “ Dietary supplements may improve irritability and overall emotional symptoms in children and adolescents with ASD. However, evidence strength is limited by study heterogeneity, RoB [risk of bias], and small-sample sizes.”
Anthocyanins: “...Regulate gut microbiota and neuropeptide release in patients with ASD” (Dobrachinski et al. 2025. Behav Brain Res. 492:115653).
Auditory Integration Training (AIT): Controlled trials found that this was not useful (Sinha et al. 2006. Arch DIs Child. 91(12):1018-22).
Bleach: see Miracle Mineral Solution
Cannabis: “There is limited research and no clinical guidance on the use of cannabis (marijuana) for ASD. However, it is used by some people with autism to alleviate conditions such as insomnia, hyperactivity, epilepsy, anxiety, and chronic pain” (NCCIH 2024. Autism).
CEASE (Complete Elimination of Autism Spectrum Expression): Developed by Tinus Smits, a Dutch doctor and homeopath. It attempts to remove toxins with homeopathic treatments, vitamin C, and other supplements. Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: debatable. Cost: negative. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
Chelation therapy: The rationale for chelation therapy has been to remove mercury. As noted above, vaccinations with thimerosal, a mercury-containing preservative, have been alleged to cause autism, but this claim has been disproved. "Because empirical evidence does not support the hypothesis that the core ASD symptoms are associated with specific levels of metals in the body, the use of chelation to remove metals from the body in order to ameliorate ASD symptoms could be seen as unfounded and illogical" (Davis et al. 2013. Res Autism Spectrum Disorders. 7(1):49-55). James et al. (2015. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD010766) concluded that “no clinical trial evidence was found to suggest that pharmaceutical chelation is an effective intervention for ASD. Given prior reports of serious adverse events, such as hypocalcaemia, renal impairment and reported death, the risks of using chelation for ASD currently outweigh proven benefits.” Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: negative. Cost: negative. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
Chlorine dioxide: see “Miracle Mineral Solution.”
Coenzyme Q10: “...Can improve sleep, communication, and food refusal...” (Dobrachinski et al. 2025. Behav Brain Res. 492:115653).
Cord blood: see stem cells.
DAN! [Defeat Autism Now!] protocol: DAN! was a project (closed in 2011) of the Autism Research Institute. The protocol began "with a choice of four general directions. The subsequent choices include chelation therapy and more than 50 dietary supplements, medications, dietary strategies, and other modalities...The ‘DAN! protocol’ as a whole was never validated or even tested, and was untestable. It was derived from observations that were not structured to determine effectiveness. It was a hodgepodge of everything DAN!’s founders speculated might be useful" (Barrett 2015. A critical look at Defeat Autism Now! and the “DAN! Protocol." Quackwatch).
Detoxifying foot baths: This is a pseudoscientific method in which the subjects place their feet in a basin of salt water through which electrical current is passed. This allegedly removes “toxins,” with water discoloration is taken as evidence of the toxins. However, the color actually comes from rusting of the electrodes.
Diets: “Although some individuals and families may find that special diets improve their sense of well-being or health, research to date on the efficacy of dietary interventions in autism has had mixed results. Some people on the autism spectrum may have food selectivity that requires intervention to increase nutrition intake” (NCCIH 2024. Autism). See also gluten- and casein-free diets, ketone diet, and specific carbohydrate diet.
Digestive enzymes: A trial of digestive enzymes found no benefit (Munasinghe et al. 2010. J Autism Dev Disord. 40(9):1131-8).
Dimethylglycine (DMG): “The limited existing research on use of DMG by autistic people demonstrates improvements in verbal communication, social interaction, affection and minimisation of repetitive behaviours. The action of DMG is said to have a protective effect from physical, environmental and metabolic stress, however further research is required to understand the mechanisms of action of DMG in the human body and its interaction with the pathways implicated in autism (Doherty et al. 2025. J Autism Dev Disord. 55(10):3689-99).
Dolphin-assisted therapy: “DAT is widely used around much of the world for autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities in children, adolescents, youth, and adults. DAT typically involves swimming or interacting with captive dolphins with the expectation that contact with them generates powerful therapeutic effects...DAT facilities typically charge visitors exorbitant fees for ‘treatments’ that can last anywhere from one session to several sessions over a week...several methodological reviews of published studies have revealed that there is no credible scientific evidence for autism spectrum disorder or any other condition” (Marino and Lilienfeld, in Hupp et al. 2020. Skeptical Inquirer. 44(1):36-41).
Facilitated communication: see “Other unconventional practices related to mental health” below.
Fecal transplants: This approach is based on the idea that changes in the microbiome are important (see Causes above). “Small trials involving autistic people have found fecal transplants improved the gastrointestinal symptoms that are common in autism, and autism-related behaviors seemed to decline in some who got the transplants. But very few trials have included a placebo group, and one recent placebo-controlled trial found no differences between groups” (O’Grady 2025. Science. 390(6774):665-6).
Folinic acid: see leucovorin
Gluten- and casein-free diets: "Diet modification as a treatment for ASD is based on the as-yet-scientifically unproven hypothesis that opioid peptides, formed from the incomplete breakdown of foods containing gluten...and casein...may enter the bloodstream due to increased intestinal permeability, cross the blood-brain barrier and impede central nervous system development and function...Currently there is a lack of evidence to support the use of GFCF diets as an effective intervention for children with ASD" (Whitehouse 2013. J Paediatr Child Health 49:E438-42). However, Karhu et al. (2020. Nutr Rev. 2020 78(7):515-31) noted that “RCTs provided evidence of behavioral and GI symptom improvement.”
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy: Dan Rossignol “has theorized that autistic children suffer from inflammation in the brain that could be treated with hyperbaric oxygen therapy,” a method that he provided, and supported this with a study of his own. “But the Association for Science in Autism Treatment calls hyperbaric oxygen therapy a ‘glaring example’ of pseudoscience in autism treatment, pointing out that numerous other studies have shown mixed - at best - results for the therapy. The FDA says it’s not a recommended or proven therapy for autism...” (Merlan 2019 Mar 20. Jezebel).
Intravenous immunoglobulin: This method is based on the premise that autism is related to neuroinflammation. Professional organizations have concluded that it is ineffective. It has significant risks.
Ivermectin: An antiparasitic medicine promoted as an alternative treatment for COVID-19. Later advocates began using it for other conditions, including autism.
Ketogenic diet: “KD inhibits histone deacetylase (HDAC1/HDAC2) by β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHB), thereby regulating gene expression. Simultaneously, it modulates the mTOR signalling pathway to suppress its excessive activation, promotes gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) synthesis, and balances neurotransmitter ratios. This alleviates symptoms such as anxiety, repetitive behaviours, and social deficits in ASD and improves their cognitive and communication ability” (Shi et al. 2026. Res Dev Disabil. 171:105270).
Leucovorin (folinic acid): Promoted by the Trump administration in 2025. “For some children with autism, the immune system may produce antibodies that block the body’s ability to move folate - a vitamin essential for cell growth and DNA production - into the brain. Leucovorin, a prescription form of folate, offers a potential work-around. It crosses the blood-brain barrier by a different route, delivering the nutrient where it’s needed” (Cha 2025 Dec 14. Washington Post). There are some small studies supporting the use of leucovorin, “and none was longer than 6 months” (Vogel 2025. Science. 389(6767):1282-3). One supportive study was withdrawn in 2026. Professional societies do not yet recommend routine use, and in 2026 the FDA declined to approve leucovorin for autism. Novella (2025 Sep 24. Science-Based Medicine blog) noted that “Leucovorin may be a legitimate treatment, but only for a small subset of those with autism who have a folate metabolism disorder.”
Lupron: This drug is used for chemical castration. Treatment is based on the scientifically invalid idea that autistic children have high testosterone levels and precocious puberty.
Massage therapy: Lee et al. (2011. J Clin Psychiatry. 72(3):406-11) wrote, “Limited evidence exists for the effectiveness of massage as a symptomatic treatment of autism. Because the risk of bias was high, firm conclusions cannot be drawn.”
Melatonin: “Low doses of melatonin may help with sleep problems in people with autism, and pediatric-appropriate prolonged-release melatonin is generally well-tolerated in children with autism. However, health care providers should discuss the potential adverse side effects and the lack of long-term safety data” (NCCIH 2024. Autism).
Mindfulness: “While the use of mindfulness-based practices is growing in popularity, this is still an emerging area of research with respect to autism. Current research in this area suggests that mindfulness-based interventions may be helpful for improving emotion regulation and co-occurring mental health conditions; however, more rigorous studies with larger sample sizes are needed to establish the evidence base for these approaches” (NCCIH 2024. Autism).
“Miracle Mineral Solution” (MMS): a bleach consisting of a sodium chlorite solution, used to generate chlorine dioxide when mixed with acid. It can produce dangerous and life-threatening side effects. It is administered orally, in baths, and in enemas. One protocol advocates administration every two hours for 72 hours.
“Following mixing instructions that come with MMS, the concentration of chlorine dioxide in the drops that are swallowed would be at least 25 times greater [than the 0.8 parts per million used to disinfect water]! At this concentration, chlorine dioxide denatures enzymes and oxidizes proteins and fats. That can cause injury to the gastrointestinal tract and lead to the expelling of damaged pieces of intestinal lining. But promoters of MMS claim that these are actually the ‘parasites’ that cause autism and are now being flushed from the body. Even if parasites were a cause, it would be impossible for chlorine dioxide to reach them without destroying human cells first. The con artists also claim that MMS destroys bacteria and viruses that they also implicate as factors in causing autism. There is no evidence whatsoever that the affliction is caused by parasites, bacteria or viruses” (Schwarcz 2025 Nov 26. McGill Office for Science and Society).
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: negative. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
N-acetyl cysteine (NAC): “Initial research into the use of NAC by autistic children indicates that NAC may be an option to reduce irritability in autistic children, hypothesised due to its antioxidant action, without the observed side effects of the existing pharmaceutical medications” (Doherty et al. 2025. J Autism Dev Disord. 55(10):3689-99).
Omega-3 fatty acids (such as EPA and DHA): These are involved in brain function and development. It was hypothesized that dietary changes in recent decades, with a reduced ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids, produced neurological effects related to increases in autism. “According to the criteria of evidence-based medicine (ie, randomized clinical trials), the data do not support the effectiveness of omega-3 treatment in children with ASD. However, based on anecdotal experiences and on nonrandomized trials, we cannot exclude that there might be a subset of people with ASD who do respond to this type of approach” (Posar and Visconti 2016. Pediatr Ann. 45(3):e103-7). “Research indicates that PUFAs [polyunsaturated fatty acids] may improve symptoms such as hyperactivity, lethargy, and irritability in ASD, with particularly notable effects on cognitive and behavioural deficits” (Shi et al. 2026. Res Dev Disabil. 171:105270).
Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA): “PEA supplementation may modulate immune response, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial function, and microbiota activity, and may improve quality of life, including the experience of common co-occurring conditions experienced by autistic people” (Doherty et al. 2025. J Autism Dev Disord. 55(10):3689-99).
Polyunsaturated fatty acids: see omega-3 fatty acids.
Probiotics: There is little supporting evidence for the use of probiotics. See above (Causes) concerning alleged changes in the microbiome. A review by Song et al. (2022. J Med Microbiol. 71(4)) concluded “The results of the meta-analysis showed that probiotics and prebiotics did not significantly improve the severity of ASD patients, GI problems and comorbid psychopathology in ASDA [autism spectrum disorder].” Another review (Het al. 2023. Nutrients. 15(6):1415) concluded “We found a nonsignificant overall effect size of probiotics on behavioral symptoms in children with ASD...However, a significant overall effect size was found in the subgroup of the probiotic blend...Additionally, these studies provided limited evidence for the efficacy of probiotics due to their small sample sizes, a shorter intervention duration, different probiotics used, different scales used, and poor research quality.”
Rapid prompting method: see “facilitated communication” under “Other unconventional practices related to mental health” below.
Respen-A: a product containing a homeopathic dilution of reserpine, administered in a patch applied to the skin daily. The product is so dilute that it cannot contain any molecules of the active ingredient.
Resveratrol: “...Can act as a neuroprotector and antioxidant, as it eliminates ROS [reactive oxygen species] and normalizes the activity of antioxidant enzymes” (Dobrachinski et al. 2025. Behav Brain Res. 492:115653).
Secretin: "...The administration of secretin for ASD is based on the unproven hypothesis that secretin may aid digestion, thus restricting the flow of harmful opioid peptides crossing the blood-brain barrier" (Whitehouse 2013. J Paediatr Child Health. 49(9):E438-42). Williams et al. (2012. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD003495) concluded “There is no evidence that single or multiple dose intravenous secretin is effective and as such currently it should not be recommended or administered as a treatment for ASD.”
Sensory Integration Therapy: This method is "...based on the premise that adequate processing and integration of sensory information by the central nervous system plays a significant role in an individual's ability to participate in daily activities" (Polenick and Flora 2012. Skeptic. 17(2):28-35). It includes various devices and types of clothing to produce a range of sensory experiences. Professional organizations have concluded that there is no good evidence of effectiveness.
Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): see below under “Other unconventional practices related to mental health.” Used by Daniel Amen to diagnose autism and recommend treatments. But “brain scans can’t reveal autism, because researchers haven’t yet definitively identified autism-specific brain activity patterns or structures. And scans certainly can’t indicate which treatment would work” (Opar 2016 Sep 22. Atlantic).
Specific carbohydrate diet: “The SCD can reduce the intake of complex carbohydrates and restrain the growth of harmful microorganisms, thereby not only improving gastrointestinal function but also enhancing neurological function” (Shi et al. 2026. Res Dev Disabil. 171:105270).
Stem cells: These may be derived from umbilical cord blood. The cells allegedly help brain repair and boost the immune system. Knoepfler (2022 Sep 6. The Niche blog) wrote, “There is in fact no good evidence that cord blood can help autism.” Gorski (“Orac”) (2020 Oct 14. Respectful Insolence blog) noted that “It’s not even very biologically plausible, given that the assumption here is that, if you inject stem cells into the blood or the cerebrospinal fluid, they will somehow know where to go and what to do.” The treatments are "done overseas because not approved in the U.S." (Shute 2010. Scientific American. 303(4):80-85). Clinical trials were carried out by Duke University.
Sulforaphane: “Dietary sulforaphane, well-known for its safety and lack of toxicity, has been explored for its possible capacity to reverse abnormalities, that have been hypothesized to be associated with ASD, including oxidative stress and lower antioxidant capacity, depressed glutathione synthesis, reduced mitochondrial function and oxidative phosphorylation, increased lipid peroxidation, and neuro-inflammation” (Narzisi et al. 2021. Nutrients. 13(6):2068).
Vitamin B12: “Encouraging early results may demonstrate improvement in ASD symptoms” (Karhu et al. Nutr Rev. 2020 78(7):515-31).
Vitamin D: Supplements of vitamin D may correct nutritional deficiency. “It has been demonstrated that Vitamin D improves ASD-related neurodevelopmental abnormalities by regulating calcium signalling homeostasis, activating the Nrf2 pathway to mitigate oxidative stress, modulating neurotransmitter synthesis, and influencing epigenetic modifications, thus alleviating core symptoms such as social communication deficits and repetitive/stereotyped behaviours...We found that Vitamin D supplementation may be the most promising and effective DI [dietary intervention] currently available, as it improved overall ASD symptoms better compared to other dietary interventions” (Shi et al. 2026. Res Dev Disabil. 171:105270).
Yasko protocol: Developed by Amy Yasko, an unlicensed naturopath. It is based on the idea that the methylation cycle contributes to autism and other diseases. It begins with genetic testing, followed by recommendations for numerous supplements which may cost thousands of dollars a year.
TREATMENT OF OTHER CONDITIONS
Note: additional information on supplements and other approaches can be found in the articles on those subjects. See also approaches described in other sections of this article.
Alzheimer's, other forms of dementia, and cognitive function
(see also chronic traumatic encephalopathy below)
General aspects: In a Viewpoint article, Hellmuth et al. (2019. JAMA 321(6):543-4) wrote, “No known dietary supplement prevents cognitive decline or dementia, yet supplements advertised as such are widely available and appear to gain legitimacy when sold by major US retailers...A similarly concerning category of pseudomedicine involves interventions promoted by licensed medical professionals that target unsubstantiated etiologies of neurodegenerative disease (eg, metal toxicity; mold exposure; infectious causes, such as Lyme disease). Some of these practitioners may stand to gain financially by promoting interventions that are not covered by insurance, such as intravenous nutrition, personalized detoxification, chelation therapy, antibiotics, or stem cell therapy. These interventions lack a known mechanism for treating dementia and are costly, unregulated, and potentially harmful. Recently, detailed protocols to reverse cognitive changes have been promoted, but these protocols merely repackage known dementia interventions (eg, cognitive training, exercise, a heart-healthy diet) and add supplements and other lifestyle changes.”
Reviews of multiple treatments:
Rutjes et al. 2018. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD011906: “We did not find evidence that any vitamin or mineral supplementation strategy for cognitively healthy adults in mid or late life has a meaningful effect on cognitive decline or dementia, although the evidence does not permit definitive conclusions.”
Butler et al. 2018. Ann Intern Med. 168(1):52-62: “Daily folic acid plus vitamin B12 was associated with improvements in performance on some objectively measured memory tests that were statistically significant but of questionable clinical significance. Moderate-strength evidence showed that vitamin E had no benefit on cognition. Evidence about effects of ω-3 fatty acids, soy, ginkgo biloba, folic acid alone or with other B vitamins, β-carotene, vitamin C, vitamin D plus calcium, and multivitamins or multi-ingredient supplements was either insufficient or low-strength, suggesting that these supplements did not reduce risk for cognitive decline...Conclusion: Evidence is insufficient to recommend any OTC [over-the-counter] supplement for cognitive protection in adults with normal cognition or MCI [mild cognitive impairment].”
Cicero et al. 2018. Pharmacol Res. 130:204-12 [cognitive decline]: “...The current literature supports the use of Ginkgo biloba, resveratrol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate and l-theanine, Theobroma cacao, Bacopa monnieri, Crocus sativus and curcumin, which might have a positive impact on cognitive impairment used alone or in combination with other nutraceuticals or traditional drugs.”
Wu et al. 2019. J Am Geriatr Soc. 67(4):749-58: “Mind-body exercises, especially tai chi and dance mind-body exercise, are beneficial for improving global cognition, cognitive flexibility, working memory, verbal fluency, and learning in cognitively intact or impaired older adults.”
Moreira et al. 2020. Dement Neuropsychol. 14(3):258-82: “Omega-3 fatty acid showed positive effects at different doses. Fortasyn Connect seemed to be effective in the early stages of the disease. Probiotic, Ginseng, Inositol and specialized nutritional formulas seemed to have a positive effect on cognition. Most of the primary studies presented poor methodological quality, included patients with mild AD, small samples, and did not obtain significative results for all the cognitive outcomes. Conclusions: The effect of most dietary interventions on cognition in AD patients remains inconclusive, however, several nutrients, isolated or not, show potential to improve cognitive function in AD, especially in its early stages.”
Ahmad et al. 2023. Metab Brain Dis. 38(1):17-44: “Data analysis showed that herbs like Gingko Biloba, Melissa Officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Ginseng and saffron alone or in combination with curcumin, low-fat diet, NuAD-Trail, and soy lecithin showed significant positive effects on AD. Moreover, combination of natural and pharmaceuticals has far better effects than only allopathic treatment.”
Brain training: see “Other unconventional pracrtices related to mental health” below.
Bredesen protocol: Offered by Dale Bredesen. It involves “modifying 36 factors simultaneously. His strict protocol could be personalized after extensive lab testing, but generally involved a low-carbohydrate diet, intermittent fasting, supplements and, at times, interventions such as hormone treatments and home mold remediation...But the suggestion that Alzheimer’s can be reversed through lifestyle adjustments has outraged doctors and scientists in the medical establishment, who have repeatedly said that there is little to no proof for such a claim...” (Gellman 2025 May 21. New York Times). His supportive studies have been criticized for small participant sizes and lack of controls. See also MEND protocol below.
Caffeine: A prospective cohort study of 86,600 women found that “Greater consumption of caffeinated coffee and tea was associated with lower risk of dementia and modestly better cognitive function, with the most pronounced association at moderate intake levels” (Zhang et al. 2026. JAMA. 335(11):961-74). Ernst (2026 Mar 3. Edzard Ernst blog) commented that “Prior to this new study, observational evidence from prospective cohort studies and meta-analyses had already suggested that moderate coffee and tea consumption - typically 1–5 caffeinated cups per day - was associated with a modestly lower risk of dementia and slower cognitive decline, often with J- or U-shaped dose responses favoring moderate intake...Caffeine was hypothesized to protect via adenosine antagonism and amyloid reduction, while polyphenols offered antioxidant and vascular benefits...The new study seems to settle at least some of the uncertainties and makes a causal link more likely.”
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG): This compound is found in tea. “Despite an impressive preclinical literature, no sufficient clinical data are available to support the use of EGCG as a cognitive function improver in clinical practice. Thus, probably the protective effect of green tea on human cognitive performance is related to other green tea compounds” (Cicero et al. 2018. Pharmacol Res. 130:204-12).
Ginkgo biloba: “Two of the [three] trials [of participants with normal cognition] provided low-strength evidence on Alzheimer-type dementia incidence; neither showed protective benefits of ginkgo biloba versus placebo. Similarly, low-strength evidence suggested that ginkgo biloba does not improve multidomain neuropsychological test performance; executive function, attention, and processing speed; or memory....Evidence was insufficient to determine any effects of ginkgo biloba versus placebo on cognitive outcomes in adults with MCI [mild cognitive impairment]” (Butler et al. 2018. Ann Intern Med. 168(1):52-62).
“...Gb is potentially beneficial for the improvement of cognitive function, daily life activities, and global clinical assessment in patients just suffered from mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer's disease and there is some evidence that it could alleviate some neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia” (Cicero et al. 2018. Pharmacol Res. 130:204-12).
MEND protocol: A personalized treatment sold by Muses Labs and based on work of Dale Bredesen (see Bredesen protocol above). “...This protocol appears to look at every marker Muses Labs can find that has been implicated in Alzheimer’s disease without actually bothering to figure out if these markers are actually etiologically linked to Alzheimer’s disease (i.e., might cause it) or are just epiphenomena (i.e., are coincidental or linked to something else that’s linked to Alzheimer’s disease and not causative)” (Gorski (“Orac”) 2016 June 24. Respectful Insolence blog).
Mosconi’s brain food diet: This diet is promoted by Lisa Mosconi. It recommends whole foods and avoiding processed foods, and emphasizes green leafy vegetables, omega-3 fatty acids, berries, and drinking 8 glasses of water a day. “She claims brain health requires a unique diet, but she fails to make her case. Some of what she says is good standard health advice, but the rest is speculative, not based on good scientific evidence, and sometimes demonstrably wrong” (Hall 2018 May 29. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Omega-3 fatty acids: “A large multinational study of adults with diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance (n = 15 077) used a combination of clinical diagnosis or an MMSE [Mini-Mental State Examination] score less than 24 and found no difference in probable dementia incidence between the EPA/DHA group and the placebo group at a median follow-up of 6.2 years...Overall, studies provided low-strength evidence suggesting that ω-3 fatty acids do not improve cognitive performance in adults with normal cognition compared with placebo” (Butler et al. 2018. Ann Intern Med. 168(1):52-62).
Tea: see epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG).
Anxiety
“Some complementary health approaches, such as relaxation techniques and music, may help to relieve anxiety during stressful situations like medical procedures. Less is known about whether complementary health approaches can help to manage anxiety disorders” (NCCIH 2020. Mental health).
The following quotes are from NCCIH 2024. Anxiety and complementary health approaches.
Acupuncture: “There is some limited evidence that acupuncture may help reduce anxiety symptoms, but overall, the quality of the studies that have been conducted is low.”
Chamomile: “Two studies, both supported by NCCIH, suggest that a chamomile dietary supplement might be helpful for generalized anxiety disorder, but the studies are preliminary, and their findings are not conclusive.”
Hypnosis: “Hypnosis has been studied for anxiety related to medical or dental procedures. Some studies have had promising results, but the overall evidence is not conclusive.”
Kava: “Kava supplements may have a small effect on reducing anxiety, but they have been linked to a risk of severe liver injury. A 2018 review of 12 studies suggested that kava may be an effective treatment for generalized anxiety disorder, but the authors noted that more research is needed. A 2018 review of 11 studies found kava may be a short-term treatment for anxiety symptoms.”
Lavender: “Studies of a lavender oil product that is taken orally (by mouth) have suggested it might be beneficial for anxiety, but because of limitations of the research, including the small size of the studies, no definite conclusions can be reached about its effectiveness.”
Melatonin: “Melatonin supplements appear to be helpful in reducing anxiety before surgery, but it’s unclear if they help to lower anxiety after surgery.”
Mindfulness meditation: “Some studies suggest that mindfulness-based practices may be as effective as or more effective than some established treatments for reducing anxiety, but more research is needed.” See also reviews under mindfulness above (“Mind-body medicine: techniques”).
Music: “There is evidence from studies of people with various health problems and those undergoing medical treatment that listening to music can reduce anxiety.”
Passionflower: ”A small amount of research suggests that passionflower might help to reduce anxiety and anxiety before a dental procedure, but conclusions are not definite.”
Relaxation techniques: “Relaxation techniques may reduce anxiety in people with chronic medical problems and those who are having medical procedures. However, cognitive behavioral therapy may be more helpful than relaxation techniques in treating at least some types of anxiety disorders.”
Valerian: “There’s not enough evidence to allow any conclusions about whether valerian is helpful for anxiety.”
Yoga: “There have been some studies showing yoga is helpful for managing anxiety symptoms, but the evidence is inconclusive for effects of yoga on anxiety disorders.”
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
General aspects: Dietary supplements and other approaches are promoted for treatment of ADHD.
Ernst (2025 Dec 9. Edzard Ernst blog), in discussing an umbrella review of ADHD interventions, wrote that “ADHD is a condition that receives much attention at present. It is far from easy to treat, and, as with all such conditions, numerous forms of so-called alternative medicine (SCAM) are claimed to be effective...it is difficult to find a SCAM that is not claimed to be useful...Of these SCAMs, just 2 [acupuncture and cognitive behavioral therapy in children and adolescents, and mindfulness in adults] are supported by some evidence. I stress ‘some’, because the authors of the above paper point out that, despite large effect sizes, the evidence should be rated as being uncertain. This seems to indicate that the primary studies are less than reliable.”
Reviews of multiple treatments:
Anheyer et al. 2017. Complement Ther Med. 30:14-23: “Low evidence could be found for Melissa officinalis, Valeriana officinalis and Passiflora incarnata. Limited evidence could be found for pine bark extract and Gingko biloba. The other herbal preparations showed no efficacy in the treatment of ADHD symptoms.”
NCCIH 2019. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder at a glance: “Despite a lot of research, it’s unclear whether taking omega-3 fatty acids, such as fish oil, is helpful for ADHD...Research on carnitine and various herbs, such as St. John’s wort, French maritime pine bark extract (also known as Pycnogenol), and Ginkgo biloba, is limited and hasn’t shown that these supplements improve symptoms of ADHD...The results of studies of neurofeedback, a technique in which people are trained to alter their brain wave patterns, for ADHD are mixed...The limited research on psychological and/or physical approaches, such as acupuncture, chiropractic, meditation, and yoga, for ADHD isn’t conclusive. There’s no evidence that homeopathic products help with ADHD.”
Zulauf-McCurdy et al. 2023. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 44(4):e322-e32: “No study reported significantly greater adverse effects for CATs [complementary and alternative treatments] than controls; naturopathy reported fewer adverse effects than evidence-based treatments but did not demonstrate basic efficacy. In the systematic review of basic efficacy, evidence of effectiveness was mixed but replicated previous evidence for the possible efficacy of cognitive training, neurofeedback, and essential fatty acid supplementation for certain patients. With respect to alternative and complementary efficacy, no CAT outperformed or enhanced evidence-based treatments (stimulant medications and behavioral therapy) when replication was required. Individual meta-analyses indicated that cognitive training was the only CAT that demonstrated overall basic efficacy...”
Brain balancing: “Some treatment providers for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) claim the root cause of ADHD is diminished right-hemisphere brain function, which is fixed by their ‘sensory-motor’ exercises. Unfortunately, this account of ADHD is a gross oversimplification...there are not any well-done studies to show that ‘brain balancing’ improves attention” (Jarrett, in Hupp et al. 2020. Skeptical Inquirer. 44(1):36-41).
Dietary interventions: “Our failure to find conclusive evidence for the efficacy of dietary interventions contrasts with a previous meta-analysis, which found large significant effects for artificial food color exclusion when including both English and non-English studies without properly blinded measures...Previous studies of restrictive elimination diets often preselected adverse responders before entering the trials, which limited findings to strictly those with pre-existing food sensitivities” (Zulauf-McCurdy et al. 2023. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 44(4):e322-e32). “Sugar causing hyperactivity in children is one of the most pervasive medical myths. It’s been well established by research that there is no link between the consumption of sugar and hyperactive symptoms in children” (MacBeth 2019 Jan 4. Science-Based Medicine blog). See also Feingold diet below.
Fatty acids: “Although fatty acids continued to be highly studied, only 2 of the 12 basic efficacy studies in our review found significant effects” (Zulauf-McCurdy et al. 2023. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 44(4):e322-e32). A review by Gillies et al. (2023. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD007986) found “there was little evidence that PUFA [polyunsaturated fatty acids] supplementation improved symptoms of ADHD in children and adolescents.”
Feingold diet: “Dr. Benjamin Feingold proposed that the elimination of salicylate, artificial food coloring, and artificial flavors from the diet would curb hyperactive symptoms. Feingold claimed that 32-60% of children improved by following the Feingold diet. However, the Nutrition Foundation did an expert review of seven studies and didn’t share his conclusion even remotely. Only 3 cases out of the 190 reviewed reported a serious increase in symptoms after going off of the Feingold diet, and all were reported by the mother of the child with no other objective, confirming evidence” (MacBeth 2019 Jan 4. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Melatonin: Bloch et al. (2014. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am. 23(4):883-97) concluded that "Melatonin is effective in improving chronic insomnia in children with ADHD but has little evidence for efficacy in improving core ADHD symptoms."
Neurofeedback for ADHD is discussed in the Biofeedback section above.
Vitamins: “Our mixed findings for vitamin supplementation are also consistent with previous work. Previous reviews of vitamin supplementation that included uncontrolled and unblinded child and adult studies found mixed effects of these treatments on ADHD symptoms. However, recent trials of broad-spectrum micronutrients...have shown potential effects compared with placebo. Despite preliminary evidence of benefits, micronutrients are often costly for patients and may be difficult to practice because they require a child to take more than 1 capsule throughout the day” (Zulauf-McCurdy et al. 2023. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 44(4):e322-e32).
Cancer
A review by Danon et al. (2022. Psychooncology. 31(3):345-71) concluded that “Mind-body therapies may be effective in improving cancer pain, but the quality of the evidence is low.” Ernst (2021 Dec 9. Edzard Ernst blog) commented that “The effects of these treatments are about the same regardless of which one we use. This might lead us to suspect that they work not via specific but via non-specific effects, e.g. placebo.”
Use of mind-body approaches in with cancer patients is also discussed in the article "Cancer and HIV/AIDS therapies".
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
CTE is an “Alzheimer’s-like fatal brain disease believed to be caused by repeated hits to the head.” Cases among professional football players have attracted attention, but now there is “a quiet population of everyday men and women who never played professional sports yet fear they have the disease. Frantic for a cure, they often turn to dubious treatments, controversial doctors or health care providers with financial stakes in the products they recommend - and the loosely regulated brain health industry is profiting...There are no Food and Drug Administration-approved treatments for CTE, yet numerous products and services are marketed as possibly able to ease its symptoms, from craniosacral therapy to a type of light therapy known as photobiomodulation to a wide range of dietary supplements. They are often expensive and not covered by insurance, and many doctors question their value...Many doctors consider CTE a rare disorder and believe widespread fear of it is unjustified. They say the same symptoms could be caused by a curable condition, such as a vitamin deficiency, a hormone imbalance, depression or even normal aging” (Pfeiffer 2021 Dec 23. NPR).
The Amen Clinics (see single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) below under “Other unconventional practices”) has a clinic that treats suspected CTE. “An Amen Clinics visit can cost several thousand dollars, not including travel costs, and patients pay out of pocket. In return, they get a lengthy one-on-one consultation and the promise of an ‘innovative brain-body approach.’ That typically includes a SPECT scan...Based partly on those scans, the company says it designs customized treatments, which can be an added expense. Amen said that by using SPECT to identify areas of low blood flow in patients' brains, which could indicate areas of damage, his clinics are able to motivate patients to improve their brain health through what he calls ‘brain envy’...‘That same pattern of decreased blood flow can also result from countless clinical conditions that aren't CTE, such as depression, ADHD, anxiety and Alzheimer's,’ said William Barr, director of neuropsychology at New York University's Grossman School of Medicine. Dr. Steven Hyman, director of the Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research at the Broad Institute of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University...said these scans can be interpreted differently by different doctors and have little value in diagnosing or treating CTE. In the view of Barr, Hyman and other brain specialists, technologies viewed in some medical circles as potentially helping people with CTE, such as SPECT or hyperbaric oxygen therapy, lack sufficient evidence for that use” (Pfeiffer 2021. Op. cit.).
Cognitive function - see “Alzheimer's, other forms of dementia, and cognitive function” above
Depression (see also seasonal affective disorder below)
Reviews of multiple treatments:
Scheft et al. 2017. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 27(11):1090-1109 [nutritional supplements]: “Our meta-analyses of 10 articles on n-3 PUFAs and four on zinc support their efficacy. For folic acid, our meta-analysis does not support efficacy. For n-3 PUFAs, sensitivity analysis showed no difference between acceleration and augmentation designs, but significant differences between individuals with or without comorbidities. For the remaining substances, only a few RCTs were available. The preliminary data on inositol was negative, while one RCT for vitamin D demonstrated positive results. For vitamin B12 one and for SAMe two RCTs and a few open trials are available reporting positive and mixed results. To summarize, for most of the substances, the available data is not yet sufficient or inconclusive.”
Haller et al. 2019. BMJ Open. 9(8):e028527: “In patients with mild to moderate major depression, moderate quality evidence suggested the efficacy of St. John's wort towards placebo and its comparative effectiveness towards standard antidepressants for the treatment for depression severity and response rates, while St. John's wort caused significant less adverse events. In patients with recurrent major depression, moderate quality evidence showed that mindfulness-based cognitive therapy was superior to standard antidepressant drug treatment for the prevention of depression relapse. Other CAM evidence was considered as having low or very low quality. Conclusions: The effects of all but two CAM treatments found in studies on clinical depressed patients based on low to very low quality of evidence.”
NCCIH 2020. Mental health: “There is some evidence that acupuncture, music-based interventions, and yoga may help with depression. Results of some studies suggest that St. John’s wort may have an effect on mild to moderate major depressive disorder (MDD) for a limited number of patients, similar to standard antidepressants, but the evidence is far from definitive. St. John’s wort, however, can interact in dangerous, sometimes life-threatening ways with a variety of medicines. It’s uncertain whether omega-3 fatty acid supplementation is useful for depression. Current research does not support the use of S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) or inositol for the treatment of depression.”
Warnick et al 2021. Int J Psychiatry Med. 56(5):334-43: “In general, St. John's Wort, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, S-adenosyl-L-methionine, and crocus sativus (saffron) have the highest levels of evidence in the treatment of mild-to-moderate depression. Acetyl-l-carnitine, l-methylfolate, DHEA, and lavender have a moderate level of evidence in treating depression, whereas Vitamin D, one of the most common supplements in the United States, does not have evidence in treating depression. Of the non-medication-based therapies, exercise, light therapy, yoga, acupuncture, and probiotics have evidence in the treatment of depression...”
Acupuncture: “The reduction in severity of depression was less when acupuncture was compared with control acupuncture than when acupuncture was compared with no treatment control, although in both cases, results were rated as providing low-quality evidence. The reduction in severity of depression with acupuncture given alone or in conjunction with medication versus medication alone is uncertain owing to the very low quality of evidence. The effect of acupuncture compared with psychological therapy is unclear” (Smith et al. 2018. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD004046).
Aromatherapy: “Aromatherapy showed potential to be used as an effective therapeutic option for the relief of depressive symptoms in a wide variety of subjects.” However, “The quality of half of the studies included is low, and the administration protocols among the studies varied considerably” (Sánchez-Vidaña et al. 2017. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017:5869315).
Curcumin: “For the intake of curcumin, a moderate-quality meta-analysis revealed very low quality of evidence suggesting a small but significant short-term effect of low heterogeneity on depression severity by pooling six RCTs...Evidence had to be downgraded due to unclear risk of selection, performance, detection, attrition and reporting bias in over the half of the included RCTs, the imprecision of the pooled effect and the possibly high risk of publication bias” (Haller et al. 2019. BMJ Open. 9(8):e028527).
Fatty acids: “At present, we do not have sufficient high-certainty evidence to determine the effects of n-3PUFAs [omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids] as a treatment for MDD [major depressive disorder]. Our primary analyses may suggest a small-to-modest, non-clinically beneficial effect of n-3PUFAs on depressive symptomology compared to placebo; however the estimate is imprecise, and we judged the certainty of the evidence on which this result is based to be low to very low” (Appleton et al. 2021. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD004692).
Folate: “The results of these meta-analyses suggest that treatment with folate and vitamin B12 does not decrease the severity of depressive symptoms over a short period of time, but may be helpful in the long-term management of special populations” (Almeida et al. 2015. Int Psychogeriatr. 27(5):727-37).
Light therapy: “For patients suffering from non-seasonal depression, light therapy offers modest though promising antidepressive efficacy, especially when administered during the first week of treatment, in the morning, and as an adjunctive treatment to sleep deprivation responders.” However, “In general, the quality of reporting was poor, and many reviews did not report adverse effects systematically. The treatment response in the bright light group was better than in the control treatment group, but did not reach statistical significance. The result was mainly based on studies of less than 8 days of treatment. The response to bright light was significantly better than to control treatment in high-quality studies..., in studies applying morning light treatment..., and in sleep deprivation responders...” (Tuunainen et al. 2004. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD004050).
Mindfulness: “Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy appears efficacious as a treatment for relapse prevention for those with recurrent depression, particularly those with more pronounced residual symptoms” (Kuyken et al. 2016. JAMA Psychiatry. 73(6):565-74).
Music therapy: “Findings of the present meta-analysis indicate that music therapy provides short-term beneficial effects for people with depression” (Aalbers et al. 2017. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD004517).
Qigong and tai chi: “ Qigong appears to be beneficial for reducing depressive symptom severity. However, given the low quality of the included studies and the documented evidence of publication bias, these results should be viewed cautiously...There was no significant effect seen for Tai Chi for the primary endpoint” (Liu et al. 2015. Complement Ther Med. 23(4):516-34).
S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe): “Given the absence of high quality evidence and the inability to draw firm conclusions based on that evidence, the use of SAMe for the treatment of depression in adults should be investigated further” (Galizia et al. 2016. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD011286).
Saffron: “Findings from clinical trials conducted to date indicate that saffron supplementation can improve symptoms of depression in adults with MDD. Larger clinical trials, conducted by research teams outside of Iran, with long-term follow-ups are needed before firm conclusions can be made regarding saffron’s efficacy and safety for treating depressive symptoms” (Hausenblas et al. 2013. J Integr Med. 11(6):377-83).
St. John’s wort: “SJW monotherapy for mild and moderate depression is superior to placebo in improving depression symptoms and not significantly different from antidepressant medication. However, evidence of heterogeneity and a lack of research on severe depression reduce the quality of the evidence. Adverse events reported in RCTs were comparable to placebo and fewer compared with antidepressants” (Apaydin et al. 2016. Syst Rev. 5(1):148).
Vitamin B6: “Viewed as a whole, meaningful treatment effect of vitamin B-6 for depression in general was not apparent. However, examination of papers addressing depression in pre-menopausal women only, reveals a consistent message about the value of using vitamin B-6 supplementation” (Williams et al. 2005. Fam Pract. 22(5):532-7).
Vitamin B12: “The results of these meta-analyses suggest that treatment with folate and vitamin B12 does not decrease the severity of depressive symptoms over a short period of time, but may be helpful in the long-term management of special populations” (Almeida et al. 2015. Int Psychogeriatr. 27(5):727-37).
Vitamin D: “In summary, this study suggests that vitamin D3 supplementation may effectively reduce depressive symptoms in short term” (Ghaemi et al. 2024. Psychol Med. 54(15):3999-4008).
Yoga: “ This review found some evidence for positive effects beyond placebo and comparable effects compared to evidence-based interventions. However, methodological problems and the unclear risk-benefit ratio preclude definitive recommendations for or against yoga as an adjunct treatment for major depressive disorder” (Cramer et a. 2017. J Affect Disord. 213:70-7).
Down syndrome
A survey of English and Spanish parents of children with Down syndrome (Lewanda et al. 2018. J Pediatr. 201:100-5.e30) found that “Forty nine percent of responders currently/previously gave their child supplement(s). The average child received 3 supplements (ranging from 1-18). Although Nutrivene, curcumin, and green tea extract were most common, over 150 different products were reported. Supplementation began most often in infancy, generally between age 4 and 6 months. Average cost was $90.53/month...More surprising was the extremely young age at which these supplements are being given. The vast array of supplements used includes many with unreliable strengths, uncertain ingredients, or megadoses of fat soluble vitamins. This can lead to adverse effects in infants and children too young to report their symptoms.” Although “87% of users noted improvement, mainly in speech, immunity, and attention,” there appears to be a lack of studies demonstrating efficacy.
Hypertension
A review by Webster et al. (2025. BMJ Med. 4(1):e001098) concluded that “relaxation and stress management techniques might have beneficial short term effects on blood pressure for people with hypertension, but the effectiveness of these interventions is still uncertain.” See also reviews in the meditation and mindfulness sections of “Mind-body medicine: techniques” above.
Parkinson’s disease
A review and meta-analysis by Kwok et al. (2016. Complement Ther Med. 29:121-31) “found that mind-body exercises demonstrated immediate moderate to large beneficial effects on motor symptoms, postural instability, and functional mobility among individuals with mild to moderate PD. However, the effects of mind-body exercises on psychosocial well-being had not been amply investigated, especially for yoga intervention...Tai Chi and dance and yoga interventions demonstrate consistent benefit in improving motor symptoms.”
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
“For SAD, a type of depression that comes and goes with the seasons, there is some evidence that light therapy may be useful as a preventive treatment for people with a history of SAD. Research shows that a type of cognitive behavioral therapy adapted for use with SAD patients helps to relieve symptoms, and its effects may continue into subsequent winters, even without additional sessions with a therapist. It’s unclear whether vitamin D supplementation can help to relieve SAD symptoms. Very little research has been done on dietary supplements other than vitamin D for SAD” (NCCIH 2020. Mental health).
Tourette syndrome
Various dental devices have been proposed to help lessen tics due to Tourette syndrome. One hypothesis relates to correcting abnormal stimulation of the trigeminal nerve. Another is that the device acts as a sensory trick. “Although the results of studies are promising, there is insufficient evidence to recommend an orthodontic intervention. More research is needed to investigate whether oral splints provide a sustained positive effect in large groups of people with Tourette syndrome. In addition, to manufacture the type of oral splint shown to improve tics requires considerable orthodontic expertise and is costly” (Joyce 2025 Aug 21. Tourettes Action). Jones (2022 Aug 5. Science-Based Medicine blog) provided a more skeptical view, quoting from an earlier (2016) post: “In summary, while we can’t yet discount the possibility that a dental appliance...can lessen or eliminate the tics that Tourette syndrome patients have, we can conclude that the biological plausibility for such a device is very low.”
OTHER UNCONVENTIONAL PRACTICES
RELATED TO MENTAL HEALTH
Access Consciousness
Access Consciousness, invented by Gary Douglas, “is claimed to be a form of self-improvement therapy based on the idea that you are not wrong, that you know, and that consciousness can shift anything. It gives you access to the possibilities that exist when you no longer stick yourself and no longer believe that you are stuck....AC promises to assist people with their health, weight, money, sex, relationships, anxiety, etc. It promises members, known as ‘Accessories,’ to become more conscious. To fully get it, Accessories should take part in classes. There they have 32 points on their heads lightly touched which is supposed to help them let go of all the thoughts, ideas, and emotions stored in any lifetime. Accessories are claimed to be able to ‘uncreate’ memories of the past, or preconceived ideas picked up throughout a lifetime. As far as I can see, there is no evidence to suggest that AC is effective” (Ernst 2021 Dec 30. Edzard Ernst blog). Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: debatable. Cost: negative. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
Animal-assisted therapies (see also dolphin-assisted therapy in the section on autism above)
Animal-assisted therapies, such as using horses, have been employed in dealing with depression, attention-deficit disorder, cognitive abilities, and addiction.
“The trend, which has accelerated hugely since its initial stirrings a few decades ago, is underpinned by a widespread belief that interaction with animals can reduce distress - whether it happens over brief caresses at the airport or in long-term relationships at home...But the evidence to date is problematic, according to [Molly] Crossman’s review and others before it. Most studies had small sample sizes, she wrote, and an ‘alarming number’ did not control for other possible reasons for a changed stress level, such as interaction with the animal’s human handler. Studies also tend to generalize across animals, she noted: If participants are measurably soothed by one golden retriever, that doesn’t mean another dog - or another species - will evoke the same response” (Brulliard 2017 Jul 2. Washington Post).
“Despite being marketed as a fun and calming way to treat addiction, research on animal-assisted therapies - such as wolf-, dolphin-, and equine-assisted therapies - has been plagued with severely flawed data and conclusions. Ethical concerns have also been raised from the standpoint of captive animal welfare and the risk of disease spread” (Stea 2020 Dec 11. Psychology Today).
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: debatable/positive. Safety: debatable/positive. Cost: negative. Risk/benefit balance: debatable.
Attachment therapy
Attachment therapy assumes that "most, if not all, childhood mental health disturbances are caused by failure of normal development of emotional attachment to caregivers...AT practitioners also share the belief that re-enactment of typical episodes of early infancy can recapitulate and repair failed attachment development. AT practitioners and parents carry out these re-enactments by physically holding or restraining children, by feeding older children by spoon or by baby bottle and preventing them from obtaining food by themselves, and by requiring children to gaze into the eyes of parents or therapists, in the mistaken belief that eye contact causes attachment rather than following it. Most of the attention paid to AT methods has focused on Holding Therapy (HT), a method that uses physical restraint and intrusive physical contact as well as verbal provocation" (Mercer 2013. Attachment therapies and associated parenting techniques. Institute for Science in Medicine). These claims and methods have been rejected by professional organizations of psychologists and psychiatrists. Injuries and at least one death have resulted from holding therapy. Some adults who had undergone holding therapy as children have reported long-lasting negative effects.
“The extent to which holding therapy is in current use with children and adolescents is unclear. In the past, mental health professionals who held certain unconventional beliefs about attachment were also likely to approve of holding therapy, and holders of such beliefs are still active. Whether they all continue to use holding therapy, however, it not known” (Mercer 2026. Skeptical Inquirer. 50(2):42-7).
Autogenic training
“Autogenic training is a therapy developed in the 1920s by the German psychiatrist Johannes Heinrich Schultz...It is an auto-hypnotic relaxation technique popular in Germany but less so other countries...Autogenic training consists of mental exercises using instructions directed at different parts of the body to control bodily perceptions, such as ‘my right foot feels warm’ or ‘my left arm feels heavy.’ Patients tend to report an intense sense of relaxation during and after autogenic training. Autogenic training is taught in a series of lessons by a qualified instructor. Autogenic training should be practised regularly and does not require further supervision. It is thus an inexpensive therapy. The technique is claimed to help for a range of (mostly stress-related) conditions” (Ernst 2019 Dec 20. Edzard Ernst blog). “However, the evidence from clinical trials is scarce and, not least due to methodological problems, less than convincing” (Ernst 2022. Alternative Medicine: A Critical Assessment of 202 Modalities).
A review by Yumkhaibam et al. (2023. Eur J Physical Ed. 10(3):124-41) concluded “The body of evidence supports autogenic training as a non-pharmacological approach to reducing anxiety and improving psychological well-being.” Seo et al. (2018. Complement Ther Med. 39:62-7) reviewed autogenic training for headache: “Five of the six reviewed RCTs investigating AT-only or biofeedback-assisted AT reported statistically significant reductions in headache. However, the findings of the six reviewed studies must be viewed cautiously because of significant limitations.”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: positive. Efficacy: debatable/positive. Safety: positive. Cost: positive. Risk/benefit balance: debatable/positive.
Autonomous nervous system testing
Practitioners of autonomous nervous system testing “appear to be taking a kernel of real science and medicine but then turning that into a simplified boutique treatment that is good for just about anything, making extremely overblown claims without sufficient evidence” (Novella 2023 Jun 14. Science-Based Medicine blog). .
Binaural beats
“When two different sound tones that are close, but not identical, in pitch are played together (one in each ear), your brain interprets a ‘beat.’ Each ear must receive a dedicated tone for this to work - so you need headphones...The idea, which has not been proven, is that the beats will nudge brain cells into firing at the same frequency, a term called ‘entrainment.’ The intent is to use different frequencies of binaural beats with the goal of triggering the brain waves that naturally occur during different activities, ranging from delta waves (0.5-4 Hz, deep sleep) through theta (4-7 Hz, meditation, and REM sleep), alpha (7-13 Hz, relaxation), beta (13-30 Hz, concentration/alertness), and gamma (30-50Hz, arousal). Proponents claim that binaural beats can induce these brain waves, and consequently, these effects...The published evidence for binaural beats to affect brain activity or emotions seems positive, but not consistently so, with the strongest evidence looking less impressive” (Gavura 2022 Feb 17. Science-Based Medicine blog). Garcia-Argibay et al. (2019. Psychol Res. 83(2):357-72) concluded that “Our meta-analysis adds to the growing evidence that binaural-beat exposure is an effective way to affect cognition over and above reducing anxiety levels and the perception of pain without prior training, and that the direction and the magnitude of the effect depends upon the frequency used, time under exposure, and the moment in which the exposure takes place.”
Bobath Concept (Neurodevelopmental Treatment)
“In the US, the Bobath Concept is known as Neurodevelopmental Treatment (NDT). Patients with cerebral palsy, stroke, and other central nervous system pathology have dysfunction in posture and movement resulting in limitations of functional activity. The Bobath approach is individualized and continues to evolve. It is based on the brain’s neuroplasticity and is multidisciplinary, involving physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech and language therapy...The Bobath approach seemed promising, offering practical, individualized, multidisciplinary interventions to improve function in cerebral palsy and stroke rehabilitation. But the evidence from scientific studies has not validated its superiority over other treatments. More high-quality research is needed” (Hall 2022 Oct 18. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Brain Gym
“In the 1970s, Paul and Gail Dennison developed a set of physical exercises claimed to improve children's ability to learn and to be based in neuroscience; they called their approach ‘educational kinesthesiology.’ The company makes money training people in the methods, and licenses the right to use the ‘Brain Gym’ trademark to people whom it trains; the trained people use branded books and other materials they buy from the company....The Brain Gym program calls for children to repeat certain simple movements such as crawling, yawning, making symbols in the air, and drinking water; these are intended to ‘integrate,’ ‘repattern,’ and increase blood flow to the brain. Though the organization claims the methods are grounded in good neuroscience, the underlying ideas are pseudoscience.
“One of the underlying ideas is that the exercises are intended to balance the brain hemispheres so the two sides work together better; there is also a notion of integrating the ‘top’ parts of the brain with the ‘lower’ parts of the brain to integrate thought and emotion, as well as integrating visual, auditory, and motor skills. Another idea is that of ‘brain buttons’ - spots on the neck that if touched in certain ways, are purported to stimulate the flow of blood to the brain. There is no good quality evidence to suggest that any of these exercises are effective.
“Another set of underlying ideas is psychomotor patterning, also known as the Doman-Delacato theory of development, which claims that if motor skills are not acquired in the correct order, the result will be a lifelong deficit in learning ability, and also claims that these deficits can be overcome by going back and learning the skipped skills; this theory, and claims to improve learning based on it, were discredited in the 1970s and 1980s. An example of this in the Brain Gym method is to have children practice crawling” (Wikipedia 2026. Brain Gym International).
"The program's theoretical basis has been researched and fully discredited; there is simply no evidence that the Brain Gym works - or even that it could work" (Radford 2009. Skeptical Inquirer. 33(5):31).
Brainspotting
Brainspotting was invented by David Grand. “The idea is that trauma (not necessarily traumatic memories, but ‘trauma’ in the abstract sense) is somehow located in specific spots in the deep brain, such as the brainstem. This is an extraordinary claim, and it is coupled with another equally extraordinary claim - that where your eyes physically look also maps to specific subcortical locations. These overlapping maps can then be used to locate the ‘trauma.’ Of course these maps do not exist. There is no neuroanatomical correlate to either component of the core principles of brainspotting. The anatomy of eye movements is fairly well understood, and does not correlate in any way with this core notion of brainspotting...Grand has had 23 years to convince the scientific community that he is onto something, the better part of a career, and has made no progress as far as I can tell. This is because he has been focusing on building Brainspotting as a treatment, not testing the underlying principles” (Novella 2025 May 14. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Brain stimulation (transcranial brain stimulation)
In these methods the brain is stimulated with the intent to bring about beneficial changes in brain function. The stimulation can be magnetic (transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS), or using direct (tDCS) or alternating (tACS) current. Claimed benefits include stress reduction, better sleep, improved memory, reduction of stuttering, and enhanced acquisition of athletic skills.
“TMS was initially approved by the FDA in 2008 to treat major depression and is currently approved to treat migraine headaches and obsessive-compulsive disorder (FDA 2018a). While TMS is being offered as a treatment within traditional health care settings, in a preliminary scoping review, we found that over a hundred clinics promote the technique for off-label (i.e., unapproved) indications ranging from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to schizophrenia. Additionally, many clinics providing TMS also offer services (such as hyperbaric oxygen chambers, infrared light therapy, and IV nutrient therapy) that are widely considered to be alternative. For many of the off-label indications advertised - such as ADD/ADHD, autism, and schizophrenia - there appears to be little or conflicting evidence to support the use of TMS. The total cost of a course of TMS varies but likely ranges between $10,000-$15,000, and uses for off-label indications are not typically covered by insurance” (Nagappan et al. 2021. AJOB Neurosci. 12(4):257-69).
“When used for depression, OCD and to stop smoking, this treatment involves delivering repeated magnetic pulses, so it's called repetitive TMS or rTMS...You also may hear the term ‘deep transcranial magnetic stimulation’ or ‘deep TMS.’ The difference between rTMS and deep TMS has to do with the type of coil used. The deep TMS coil stimulates deeper and wider areas of the brain, compared with rTMS. Deep TMS coils have been FDA-approved for OCD and to stop smoking. Although the biology of why TMS works isn't completely understood, the stimulation appears to affect how the brain is working. It seems to ease depression symptoms and improve mood” (Mayo Clinic 2023. Transcranial magnetic stimulation).
“Another form of brain stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), is an experimental technique that provides low levels of electrical current to the brain. There are over 2,000 published studies in the scientific literature, claiming that tDCS may be effective for clinical indications, such as chronic pain and depression, as well as for cognitive enhancement indications such as improving memory and learning. However, scholars have criticized the proliferation of small sample-size studies, the absence of longitudinal research..., and have questioned whether electrical current is even reaching the brain. tDCS does not have FDA approval in the U.S., nor is it recommended by any professional organization for the treatment of any indication. In addition to tDCS, a variety of other transcranial electrical stimulation techniques are used by providers, such as cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES), which is FDA-cleared for anxiety, depression and insomnia; a recent review, however, found that there was limited evidence to support its use for these indications” (Nagappan et al. 2021. Op. cit.).
Coates McCall et al. (2019. Neuron. 102(4):728-31) examined claims for commercial wearable brain technologies. “Claims about wellness were made for 31 of the devices, enhancement for 28, and health for 9, including conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and other neurodegenerative disorders, depression, chronic pain, insomnia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). For one device, the claim pertained to the slowing of cognitive decline.” However, there was little or no evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of the specific devices for the indicated conditions.
Critiques: “Using TMS to change the EEG may have an effect while the TMS is being applied, but its effect is temporary at best and may just be cosmetic when applied to a condition like autism. TMS does not change the underlying condition of decreased brain interconnectedness, and therefore has no plausibility as a treatment for autism” (Novella 2017 Jul 12. Science-Based Medicine).
“TMS can lead to short-term side effects such as headaches and neck pain and, in rare cases, seizures; tDCS has been shown to occasionally cause skin burns, headaches or dizziness” (Nagappan et al. 2021. Op. cit.).
Brain training (brain games)
“Brain training apps, games, and programs are marketed as tools to improve cognitive abilities for many but also to stave off cognitive decline associated with age and even degenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease. These marketing claims assume that gains after training will transfer to cognitive functions more generally. That is, training your mind on a game designed to help focus your attention will enable you to control your attentional focus in tasks outside of the game as well. This assumption is so pervasive that most people do not even consider whether skills trained using a given tool will transfer to real-world situations...In the education sector, some tools are marketed as fun games for kids, and promise a ‘leg-up’ for school-readiness and future career success. Treatments marketed to working adults often highlight increased productivity and concentration as benefits of their programs...In 2016, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission charged Luminosity, a brain training company, with deceptive advertising; they reached a settlement with Luminosity and the company agreed to pay $2 million...” (Schneider and Viskontas 2024. Skeptical Inquirer. 48(1):39-44).
“Transfer is generally categorized into two realms: near transfer and far transfer. Near transfer occurs when someone is trained in one skill successfully and their ability in that area is improved, and highly similar skills might also benefit...Far transfer occurs when someone is trained in a particular skill, and this training also improves their ability in a fairly different skill...Often brain training interventions are successful in accomplishing near transfer, but the evidence for far transfer is elusive...Despite minimal evidence for far transfer in brain training interventions, many companies market their products broadly as programs designed to ‘keep you sharp’ or are targeted at families who want to boost their child’s academic and career success. These claims are largely unfounded” (Ibid.).
“There is likely little harm in engaging in brain training exercises, but the benefits are not entirely clear, and if time or energy are at a premium, older adults or those at risk of developing mild cognitive impairment might be better served spending it engaged in physical exercise or in social interactions” (Ibid.).
Reviews:
Melby-Lervåg and Hulme 2013. Dev Psychol. 49(2):270-91: “...Memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not generalize...However, current findings cast doubt on both the clinical relevance of working memory training programs and their utility as methods of enhancing cognitive functioning in typically developing children and healthy adults.”
Allaire et al. 2014. A consensus on the brain training industry from the scientific community. Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Stanford Center on Longevity: “The strong consensus of this group is that the scientific literature does not support claims that the use of software-based ’brain games’ alters neural functioning in ways that improve general cognitive performance in everyday life, or prevent cognitive slowing and brain disease.”
Kelly et al. 2014. Ageing Res Rev. 15:28-43: “Cognitive training can improve older adults’ performance on cognitive tasks. Interventions comprising general mental stimulation may benefit cognitive function but further research is required. Effects of cognitive training can transfer to untrained tasks, untrained domains, and everyday functioning. The effects of cognitive training can be maintained for up to six months.”
Au et al. 2015. Psychon Bull Rev. 22(2):366-77: “We conclude that short-term cognitive training on the order of weeks can result in beneficial effects in important cognitive functions as measured by laboratory tests.“ (Disputed by Melby-Lervåg and Hulme 2016. Psychon Bull Rev. 23(1):324-30: “We present new meta-analyses and conclude that there is no convincing evidence that working memory training produces general cognitive benefits.” Rebuttal by Au et al. 2016. Psychon Bull Rev. 23(1):33107)
Simons et al. 2016. Psychol Sci Public Interest. 17(3):103-86: “...We find extensive evidence that brain-training interventions improve performance on the trained tasks, less evidence that such interventions improve performance on closely related tasks, and little evidence that training enhances performance on distantly related tasks or that training improves everyday cognitive performance. We also find that many of the published intervention studies had major shortcomings in design or analysis that preclude definitive conclusions about the efficacy of training...”
Wang et al. 2021. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 92:104260: “Game-based brain training can be considered a supplementary intervention for improving cognitive functions in community-dwelling older adults.”
Nguyen et al. 2022. Neuropsychol Rev. 32(3):601-30: “...Whilst ‘brain training’ may be suitable for enjoyment and entertainment purposes, there is currently insufficient empirical evidence to support that such training can improve memory, general cognition, or everyday functioning.”
Somaa et al. 2025. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 17(Suppl 2):S1719-23: “Brain training games are effective for the improvement of cognitive functions, processing and working memory.”
Dopamine detox
“A psychologist named Cameron Sepah first coined the term ‘dopamine fasting’ in a 2019 article on LinkedIn. The goal, as he described it, was to reduce problematic or impulsive behaviors like emotional eating and excessive use of the internet and social media. These and other behaviors, he explained, give us quick hits of dopamine. By abstaining from both these activities and other forms of instant gratification, the theory goes that we become less reliant on those stimuli to feel happy. He pitched it like it was a new idea.” However, “What Sepah described as a ‘dopamine detox’ or ‘dopamine fast’ is actually a form of psychological conditioning that’s been around for a long time” (Cleveland Clinic 2024. Dopamine detoxes don’t work: Here’s what to do instead).
“The idea comes from a hyperreductionist and misleading popular notion about what dopamine is. It is supposed to be the ‘reward’ chemical. When you do something pleasurable, you get a ‘hit of dopamine.’ This oversimplified notion leads people to believe that dopamine itself is addictive, or that the dopamine is what is causing the pleasurable reward experience. None of this is true...there is nothing inherently rewarding or pleasurable about dopamine. It just happens to be the neurotransmitter involved in the reward circuitry...The overall idea is to avoid behaviors for a period of time that allegedly release dopamine. For either a few hours a day, or one day a week, or one week a year, you avoid any activity that might trigger a reward reaction in the brain. The claim is that this will keep your brain dopamine levels low (utter nonsense) and therefore ‘detox’ your brain from dopamine...The deeper problem with this approach is that it frames a complex behavioral issue into a simple matter of brain chemistry. This is similar to the ‘brain training’ marketing. It focuses on brain function in a simplistic way, taking attention away from the behaviors themselves and the whole person, in order to sell a quick fix” (Novella 2023 Apr 12. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Dual sympathetic reset
“The idea is to use a dual sympathetic block (dual sympathetic reset), a nerve block procedure involving the stellate ganglion, to treat anxiety and PTSD [post-traumatic stress disorder]. This is an established procedure for some types of facial pain. The claim is that people who suffer from PTSD are hypervigilant and have an exaggerated startle response because their sympathetic ‘fight or flight’ system is stuck in the on position. Blocking the stellate ganglion can ‘reset’ or ‘reboot’ the sympathetic nervous system back to its normal function. That’s a nice story, but it is completely unproven. I find it a bit simplistic. It is also a setup for maximal placebo effects - an invasive procedure that may have some symptomatic relief. It is not surprising that the vast majority of ‘studies’ of this treatment are little more than case reports or case series - purely anecdotal” (Novella 2024 Jan 10. Science-Based Medicine blog).
A review by Prasad et al. (2023. Front Psychiatry. 14:1309986) concluded that “Despite the encouraging results, we remain cautious in interpreting the benefit of the technique due to the lack of sufficient standardized clinical trial data, heterogeneity in reported results, and the potential for bias in reporting.”
EMDR - see Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
Emotional Freedom Technique (see also energy psychology)
Emotional Freedom Technique is “an energy-based method promoted as a psychological variant of acupuncture, wherein the process of tapping so-called acupoints allegedly alters energy networks to produce remarkable cures” (Rosen et al. 2019. Lancet Psychiatry. 6(10):802-3). “EFT is based on the premise that the cause of all emotional and physical dis-ease is a disruption in the body’s energy system. This presumes that a distressing memory of an event is not the trigger of the individual’s pain, but instead, the distressing memory becomes a disruption in the body’s energy system, and it is the disruption that causes the symptom or condition...Each time the tapping procedure is concluded, the patient is asked once again to retest the intensity of the symptom by rating it on the 0 to 10 scale. Very frequently, the intensity will be substantially reduced. Retapping until the symptom has disappeared can continue to the patient’s satisfaction. Other times, the retest may reveal that the patient scores the problem even higher than initially tested. Oftentimes this can be the result of a new aspect of the problem presenting itself that can be explored with the patient: perhaps the emergence of a new memory, image, or story connected to the problem that was not initially evident to the patient” (Rancour 2017. J Holist Nurs. 35(4):382-8).
Dawson Church, a practitioner and promoter of EFT, wrote, “Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFTs) and other ‘energy psychology’ protocols combine elements of established therapies, such as cognitive restructuring and exposure techniques, with the novel ingredient of acupuncture point (acupoint) stimulation...Acupoint stimulation is delivered in the form of percussion with the fingertips (‘acupoint tapping’), a type of acupressure. In acupressure, the same discrete points on the body that are used in acupuncture are manually stimulated for therapeutic effects...For a small proportion of individuals who might find tapping on their skin unsettling, such as those who have been physically abused, an alternative way of stimulating the acupoints within an energy psychology framework is to apply light pressure with the fingertips...While stimulating these acupoints, clients maintain mental focus on a traumatic event. This is facilitated by EFT's ‘setup statement,’ which combines exposure with cognitive reframing. The client uses the words ‘even though’ before the triggering phrase, and ‘I deeply and completely accept myself’ after it...Although tapping on seven prescribed acupoints, the client then uses a ‘reminder phrase’ to facilitate exposure” (Church et al. 2018. J Nerv Ment Dis. 206(10):783-93).
A meta-analysis by Clond (2016. J Nerv Ment Dis. 204(5):388-95) stated “Emotional freedom technique treatment demonstrated a significant decrease in anxiety scores, even when accounting for the effect size of control treatment. However, there were too few data available comparing EFT to standard-of-care treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy, and further research is needed to establish the relative efficacy of EFT to established protocols.”
A meta-analysis by Church et al. (2018. Op. cit.) concluded that “the acupressure component was an active ingredient and outcomes were not due solely to placebo, nonspecific effects of any therapy, or nonacupressure components.” Spielmans et al. (2020. J Nerv Ment Dis. 208(8):628-31) challenged the statistical analysis, concluding that there was “no specific mental health benefits for acupoint tapping.” Church et al. replied (2020. J Nerv Ment Dis. 208(8):632-5) with a revised analysis that “supports the original conclusion that the acupressure component of the EFT protocol is an active ingredient that contributes to the method's favorable health effects.”
Ernst (2018 Oct 15. Edzard Ernst blog), commenting on the reviews of Clond and Church (2018), wrote “These reviews conveniently forget to mention that the primary studies tend to be of poor or even very poor quality. The most common flaws include tiny sample sizes, wrong statistical approach, lack of blinding, lack of control of placebo and other nonspecific effects. Reviews of such studies thus turn out to be a confirmation of the ‘rubbish in, rubbish out’ principle: any summary of flawed studies are likely to produce a flawed result. Until I have good quality trials to convince me otherwise, EFT is in my view: 1. implausible and 2. not of proven effectiveness for any condition.”
Novella (2022 Apr 27. Science-Based Medicine blog) wrote, “Let’s start with the fact that acupuncture points do not exist. A literature review found that acupuncturists cannot agree on where specific points are supposed to be, and cannot agree on which points to what. Even if we set aside the fatal problem that there is no physiological, neurological, or anatomical basis for the existence of energy points in the body, a hundred years of clinical research has found that there isn’t even agreement on where they are supposed to be...Further, there is zero evidence for the existence of any form of ‘life energy’ or chi...So, if life energy, meridians, and acupressure points do not exist, how could tapping them have a specific psychological effect? The short answer is, it can’t. And yet there are many clinical studies that show an apparent benefit from EFT for anxiety, fatigue, stress, depression, and PTSD. Most of these studies are small and have methodological issues, but beyond that this type of clinical research is extremely challenging. The outcomes are largely subjective and highly amenable to placebo effects, including demand characteristics, introducing a novel element into therapy, and regression to the mean. Further, there is a component of EFT that is essentially exposure therapy and cognitive behavior therapy, which can be effective on their own...In short, the research is nowhere near where it would need to be to properly establish EFT as having specific efficacy, even without the fact that it is based on pure pseudoscience without any basis in reality.”
“The RCTs supporting such pseudoscientific therapies as emotional freedom techniques (EFT) and thought field therapy (TFT) have used only waitlist control groups, which, we have known since the uncovering of the Hawthorne effect, prove absolutely nothing” (Bakker 2026. Skeptical Inquirer. 50(2):64).
Energy psychology (see also Emotional Freedom Technique and Thought Field Therapy)
“Several different kinds of Energy Psychology have been described, but they all rely on unusual procedures adapted from non-Western cultures, have unverified mechanisms of action, and claim to be unusually rapid and powerful. Although techniques based on energy psychology were introduced more than three decades ago, good evidence of their effectiveness is still lacking, and none of them are included on the American Psychological Association’s list of evidence-based psychological treatments.
“The basic method of energy psychology involves manual stimulation of acupuncture points by touching or tapping, sometimes combined with humming tunes or counting aloud. It appears that often the developers of these techniques promote them in books and workshops based on anecdotal reports of their effectiveness and have little or no interest in conducting controlled research...Promoters often claim 90 or 100 percent success rates with all psychological problems, and this in less than one hour sessions.
“No evidence for the existence of meridians, invisible psychological energy fields, or energy blockages that could cause psychological problems has been found...The only properly controlled dismantling studies that have tested energy psychology found that it had no effective ingredients separate from those found in standard treatments” (Thomason 2022. Skeptic. 27(1): 29-35).
Enneagram
“The Enneagram of Personality, or simply the Enneagram, is a pseudoscientific model of the human psyche which is principally understood and taught as a typology of nine interconnected personality types...Contemporary approaches are principally derived from the teachings of the Bolivian psycho-spiritual teacher Oscar Ichazo from the 1950s and the Chilean psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo from the 1970s...As a typology, the Enneagram defines nine personality types (sometimes called ‘enneatypes’), which are represented by the points of a geometric figure called an enneagram, which indicate some of the principal connections between the types...The Enneagram of Personality is promoted in both business management and spirituality contexts through seminars, conferences, books, magazines, and DVDs. In business contexts, it is often promoted as a means to gain insights into workplace interpersonal dynamics; in spirituality it is commonly presented as a path to states of enlightenment and essence. Proponents in both contexts say it has aided in self-awareness, self-understanding, and self-development. There has been limited formal psychometric analysis of the Enneagram, and the peer-reviewed research that has been done is not accepted within the relevant academic communities. Though the Enneagram integrates some concepts that parallel other theories of personality, it has been dismissed by personality assessment experts as pseudoscience” (Wikipedia 2026. Ennegram of personality).
Equine-assisted therapy - see animal-assisted therapies above
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)
EMDR, invented by Francine Shapiro, “is promoted for the treatment of post-traumatic stress, phobias, learning disorders, and many other mental and emotional problems. The method involves asking the client to recall the traumatic event as vividly as possible and rate certain feelings before and after visually tracking the therapist's finger as it is moved back and forth in front of the client's eyes...Recent reviews have concluded that the data claimed to support EMDR derive mostly uncontrolled case reports and poorly designed controlled experiments and that the theory of EMDR clashes with scientific knowledge of the role of eye movements" (Barrett 2008. Mental help: Procedures to avoid. Quackwatch). Hall (2019 Apr 30. Science-Based Medicine blog) wrote, “There is positive research on Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) but only because the research methods were flawed and because factors like patient engagement are common to all successful psychotherapies.” According to promoters, tens of thousands of therapists have been trained worldwide, and they have treated millions of patients.
“Therapists carry out E.M.D.R. in eight phases that typically unfold over six to 12 sessions, although that number varies from person to person. Each session tends to last between 60 and 90 minutes. First, a therapist will discuss the patient’s current challenges, gathering information about their history, and then propose a plan for treatment..The patient may need to ‘float back’ from their current symptoms...exploring a recent emotional outburst or panic attack to isolate the triggers that provoked it. The goal is to identify a traumatic memory that a patient can work through in the later E.M.D.R. phases...Once those strategies are established, typically after one or two sessions, the therapist instructs the patient to recall the most difficult aspect of the traumatic event. It could be an image, sound or smell that intrudes on their thoughts most often...Patients focus on the sensations and emotions they experience while thinking about this aspect as they engage in activities like moving their eyes, tapping on their body or hearing a faint beeping sound that alternates between their ears. Each set of these bilateral stimulations typically lasts between 30 and 60 seconds” (Blum and Park 2022 Sep 19. New York Times).
A review by Wilson et al. (2018. Front Psychol. 9:923) found data “evidence the efficacy of EMDR therapy as a treatment for PTSD [post-traumatic stress disorder]. Specifically, EMDR therapy improved PTSD diagnosis, reduced PTSD symptoms, and reduced other trauma-related symptoms. EMDR therapy was evidenced as being more effective than other trauma treatments...However, limitations to the current evidence exist, and much current evidence relies on small sample sizes and provides limited follow-up data.”
A review and meta-analysis by Cuijpers et al. (2020. Cogn Behav Ther. 49(3):165-80) found “EMDR may be effective in the treatment of PTSD in the short term, but the quality of studies is too low to draw definite conclusions. There is not enough evidence to advise it for the use in other mental health problems.” Elsewhere, Cuijpers noted “the quality of research is really very bad” (Blum and Park 2022. Op. cit.).
A meta-analysis by Seok and Kim (2024. J Clin Med. 13(18):5633) concluded “This study confirms that EMDR is effective in treating depression, particularly in severe cases, and highlights its potential as a non-pharmacological intervention. However, this study highlights the need for more standardized research and long-term evaluations to assess EMDR's lasting impact.” Novella (2024. Oct 23. Science-Based Medicine blog) commented that this “is a great example of the limitations of meta-analysis, and how easy it is to create essentially a false narrative using poor quality research...If you go through the individual studies you will see that none of them are compelling evidence for the efficacy of EMDR, and therefore adding a lot of weak studies together does not create a strong study. This is the perfect example of garbage in-garbage out...What we don’t see in the EMDR research to any significant degree are studies that actually isolate the variable that is the very definition of EMDR itself.”
Novella also noted, “Later research aiming to backfill the evidence for an EMDR mechanism amounts to what I call ‘stuff happens’ evidence. Whenever subjects do anything, cognitive stuff is happening in the brain, but that does not mean that whatever brain activity is detected is having the specific effects that are claimed for it, in this case changing how subjects process traumatic or painful memories.”
Rosen and Pankratz (2024. Skeptical Inquirer. 48(5):54-7) wrote, “Despite its controversial history, numerous studies supported EMDR, and it came to be recognized as an effective and evidence-based treatment (e.g., by the American Psychiatric Association and the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies). These endorsements are viewed not as testament to the therapeutic powers of eye movements but as indicants of just how deficient current criteria are for defining what it means to be an evidence-based treatment. Here the core problem is that the profession of psychology remains vulnerable to anyone who claims a new method, trademarks an acronym, conducts the required number of studies - however weak their designs may be - and gains recognition for devising an accepted method...Under the banner of a breakthrough discovery and pseudoscientific jargon, Shapiro packaged a nonessential novel technique (e.g., sets of bilateral stimulation) along with techniques that were already shown to be effective - exposure and imagery-based methods...She then directed the narrative: she pushed extraordinary claims, shifted her theories, taught ever more complicated methods, and insisted on treatment fidelity that required higher levels of training. Whatever accounts for EMDR’s acceptance to this day, there is still no compelling reason nor science-based mechanism to justify therapists waving fingers in front of their patients’ eyes. The extraordinary evidence just isn’t there.”
Facilitated Communication and variants (Rapid Prompting Method, Spelling to Communicate, etc.)
These methods are used to help autistic or otherwise disabled individuals to communicate. A "facilitator" helps the subject spell out messages. However, controlled studies show that the messages are actually produced unintentionally by the facilitator.
“The theory behind it suggests that many non-speaking individuals with severe autism have intact cognitive abilities but are unable to express themselves due to motor difficulties. In other words, they have what some proponents call ‘broken bodies.’ The technique involves a facilitator holding the hand of the disabled individual while they type on a keyboard” (Vyse in Jacobsen 2025 Nov 14. Good Men Project).
“The early results were astonishing. People who had never spoken a complete sentence were suddenly writing poetry and novels with the assistance of their facilitators, and FC began to spread like wildfire. However, the involvement of another person in the process - the facilitator - raised obvious questions about who was really typing. Peer-reviewed studies using simple blinding techniques began to emerge, and the results were devastating” (Vyse 2024. Skeptical Inquirer. 48(6):51-5). Lilienfeld et al. (2014. Evid Based Communication Assess Intervention. 8(2):62-101) wrote: "...by the mid- to late-1990s, FC had been convincingly refuted by controlled research and overwhelmingly rejected by the scientific community...Professionals in the fields of communication disorders and mental health may therefore be surprised to learn that FC remains alive and well in much of the mainstream autism and developmental disabilities community, and that it seems to be staging a broader comeback..." “Facilitated Communication is still widely used in many countries and is now also referred to as supported typing, typing to communicate, typing, or augmentative and alternative communication” (Hemsley et al. 2025. Res Pract Intellect 12(2):158-78).
Vyse (2018. Skeptical Inquirer 42(6):25-7) wrote that “new variations of FC were introduced that looked different but shared the same problems. The most popular of these new techniques is Rapid Prompting Method (RPM) developed by Soma Mukhopadhyay (2013). In this case, instead of hand-over-hand guidance on a keyboard, the person with autism points to a letter board, and a teacher or assistant reports the words tapped out. RPM is different from PC, but it has the same potential for unconscious prompting because the letter board is always held in the air by the assistant. As long as the method for communication involves the active participation of another person, the potential for unconscious guidance remains.” “Rapid Prompting Method was rebranded by one of Mukhopadhyay’s associates, Elizabeth Vosseller, as Spelling to Communicate...This rebranding, in turn, was recently rebranded by Dawnmarie Gaivin and Dana Johnson as The Spellers Method” (Hemsley et al. 2025. Res Pract Intellect 12(2):158-78). Spelling to Communicate “includes a variation where the nonspeaking individual uses a pencil to poke the letters of a stencil held in the air by the communication partner. Some students move on to use a keyboard like those used with FC, but the keyboard always floats in the air, held by someone else...These letter board methods differ from FC in that no one touches the nonspeaking person, yet they retain a fundamental issue that raises suspicion: the involvement of a second person” (Vyse 2024. Skeptical Inquirer. 48(6):51-5).
“To further articulate the stunning nature of the claims made by FC and RPM supporters, consider how we usually learn to speak, read, and write. Typically, a child first learns to talk and carry on a conversation, then to read by decoding written words and sentences, and finally to write sentences. The claim of both FC and RPM is that individuals with autism have skipped over the first two steps. Merely through passive exposure to printed and spoken words in their environment, they have acquired the necessary skills to begin to type out words and sentences. Such an unusual claim is perhaps not impossible, but it would require convincing evidence. So far, the evidence is lacking for both FC and RPM...” (Vyse 2020 May 20. Skeptical Inquirer).
“As for Rapid Prompting Method, Spelling to Communicate, and Spellers Method, despite several decades of use and promotion, there is a complete absence of rigorous research on efficacy...Additionally, use of Facilitated Communication and variants is associated with harmful outcomes, including opportunity cost in terms of time and money, lost access to effective interventions, false allegations of sexual abuse, sexual assault, and serious educational and other forms of maltreatment; harms that are well documented...So compelling is the evidence against Facilitated Communication, both in its ineffectiveness as a communication technique and in the danger it poses to people with communication disabilities and their families and others, that more than a dozen professional organisations globally have released position statements warning against its use” (Hemsley et al. 2025. Op. cit.).
Hemsley also noted that “underpinning Facilitated Communication and all variants is the ethos of presuming competence (in cognitive, intellectual, receptive language, and literacy skills), which is interpreted by proponents as diminishing or removing any need for assessing the person’s skills and impairments. Indeed, proponents have actively opposed such assessments.” Also, “Everyone who works with, or wishes to support, non-speaking people with communication disabilities must be mindful that Facilitated Communication and variants result in facilitator control of messages through mechanisms that are simultaneously too subtle for most observers to notice, yet powerful enough to violate the communication rights of those least able to speak up for those rights.”
“But the latest twist, according to a popular podcast called The Telepathy Tapes, is that these non-speaking individuals, or those with limited language, are not only communicating through these discredited methods, but they also allegedly have telepathic powers. According to the podcast, they can read minds, insert thoughts into other people’s minds, and see through blindfolds. Essentially, they are claimed to have numerous paranormal and supernatural abilities” (Vyse in Jacobsen 2025 Nov 14. Good Men Project).
Reviews:
Schlosser et al. 2014. Augment Altern Commun. 30(4):359-68: “Results indicated unequivocal evidence for facilitator control: messages generated through FC are authored by the facilitators rather than the individuals with disabilities. Hence, FC is a technique that has no validity.”
Hemsley et al. 2018. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 3:1-8 (reviewing papers 2014-2018): “There are no new studies on authorship and there remains no evidence that FC is a valid form of communication for individuals with severe communication disabilities. There continue to be no studies available demonstrating that individuals with communication disabilities are the authors of the messages generated using FC.”
Schlosser et al. 2019. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 6(4):403-12 (Rapid Prompting Method for autism): “No studies met the inclusion criteria, resulting in an empty review that documents a meaningful knowledge gap. Controlled trials of RPM are warranted.”
Forest bathing - see nature immersion
Holding therapy - see attachment therapy
Holotropic breathwork
“Holotropic breathing was developed and promoted by a new age psychologist, Stanislav Grof, in 1975. It is described as:
HB is a psychotherapeutic procedure involving hyperventilation, a voluntary, prolonged, mindful, and deep overbreathing procedure supported by music and elective bodywork. The HB session is largely nonverbal and without interventions. It concludes with mandala drawing and sharing. A typical HB session lasts for about 1–3 hours, and the client terminates the session voluntarily.
“So basically, it’s voluntary hyperventilation...When you hyperventilate you force CO2 down, alkalinizing the blood (called a respiratory alkalosis). This affects the functioning of the nervous system...Holotropic breathwork has become the latest fad, and is being promoted as a spiritual and psychological intervention. However, it is nothing new or unique, and is just another way of tweaking brain function in order to produce unusual experiences that can then be interpreted in line with preexisting narratives” (Novella 2019 Oct 23. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Horse therapy - see animal-assisted therapies
Ketogenic diet
A diet very low in carbohydrates causes the body to produce ketones as an alternate fuel for the brain. This type of diet has been explored as a treatment for seizures and migraine.
Novella (2019 Feb 20. Science-Based Medicine blog) wrote “At this point we are still not sure what the potential mechanism is. The production of ketones has been shown to affect the activity of neurotransmitters, which is a plausible mechanism. It also alters antioxidant activity and inflammation in the brain. There are countless studies showing effects on various physiological markers, but nothing tying a specific mechanism to any apparent clinical effect. The clinical evidence, after almost a century of use, is surprisingly unclear. A 2018 Cochrane review of the ketogenic diet for refractory epilepsy concludes:
The RCTs discussed in this review show promising results for the use of KDs in epilepsy. However, the limited number of studies, small sample sizes and the limited studies in adults, resulted in a low to very low overall quality of evidence.
Most reviews are still concluding that more and better studies are needed. Why is this? Part of the problem is that these studies are hard to do. Subjects need to be placed on an extreme diet, something which is hard to blind and has overall poor compliance. Studies also need to be long term, at least a year if not longer. This is because the effect may take time to occur, may not last, and side effects may start to appear over time. Studies are plagued by a high drop-out rate, often for lack of benefit...This is a setup for confirmation bias, which might explain why many clinicians are more confident in the treatment than the clinical studies warrant. I should also point out that the evidence supports effectiveness in children with refractory epilepsy, but not in adults...The side effects of a ketogenic diet are also non-trivial, including gastrointestinal symptoms, increased cholesterol, and long term cardiovascular effects.
“What about the ketogenic diet for migraines? Everything I said above about plausibility and side effects applies. The clinical evidence for efficacy is even more preliminary. It consists mainly of case reports and open-label case series. There are no high quality double-blind studies. The risk-benefit for migraines, in my opinion, is not worth it.”
In 2026 “Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. asserted...that the keto diet could cure schizophrenia - an unfounded claim that experts say vastly overstates preliminary research into whether the high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet might help patients with the disorder” (Stolberg 2026 Feb 5. New York Times).
Lightning Process
“The Lightning Process (LP) is a therapy for ME [myalgic encephalomyelitis] based on ideas from osteopathy, life coaching, and neuro-linguistic programming. LP is claimed to work by teaching people to use their brains to ‘stimulate health-promoting neural pathways.’ One young patient once described it as follows: ‘Whenever you get a negative thought, emotional symptom, you are supposed to turn on one side and with your arm movements in a kind if [sic] stop motion, just say STOP very firmly and that is supposed to cut off the adrenaline response.’ Allegedly, the LP teaches individuals to recognize when they are stimulating or triggering unhelpful physiological responses and to avoid these, using a set of standardized questions, new language patterns, and physical movements with the aim of improving a more appropriate response to situations. The LP involves three group sessions on consecutive days where participants are taught theories and skills, which are then practiced through simple steps, posture, and coaching” (Ernst 2023 Mar 30. Edzard Ernst blog). The method is also employed for depression and chronic pain.
Ernst (2020 Jun 1. Edzard Ernst blog) noted that he could find only a single trial of LP, which did not control for placebo effects. “So, what do we call a therapy for which numerous, far-reaching claims are being made, which is based on implausible assumptions, which is unproven, and for which people have to pay dearly? The last time I looked, it was called quackery.” “In 2021, after a review of the available evidence, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence advised against the use of Lightning Process among patients with ME/CFS [chronic fatigue syndrome]” (Wikipedia 2026. The Lightning Process).
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: positive. Cost: debatable. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
Nature immersion (forest bathing)
Spending time in a natural environment is thought to provide many benefits, such as cardiovascular health, reduction of stress and anxiety, lower blood pressure, reduced risk of diabetes and cancer, improved immunity, better sleep, and overall satisfaction. The Forest Ministry of Japan “in the early 1980s began advising people to take strolls in the woods for better health. The practice was called forest bathing, or shinrin-yoku...” (Sifferlin 2016 Jul 25. Time). In addition to psychological effects, some benefits are thought to arise from chemicals emitted by trees, such as alpha-pinene. However, some evidence indicates that beneficial effects might be produced simply by looking at nature scenes.
Neural Organization Technique
Neural Organization Technique was developed by Carl Ferreri, a chiropractor. It purports to realign the skull bones to heal mental disorders. “NOT combines chiro spinal care with Applied Kinesiology and holistic health approaches from Western and Eastern Science in an evidenced based, contemporary neuroscience framework. The aim of the technique is to move you into a rested, self-healing state, by decreasing your Sympathetic Nervous system activity. Ensuring your survival systems of feeding, fight/flight, reproduction and immune health can be engaged as required. Modern life often pushes us toward a state of ‘sympathetic dominance’ with our fight/flight responses engaged persistently depleting our ability to regulate sufficient daily energy and digestive health. NOT is designed to identify neural disorganisation caused by your body’s unresolved adaptation to common stressors such as physical injury, emotional stress and biochemical challenge. The NOT protocols explore your nervous system health through a series of spine health and brain health checks. The spine health/brain health checks review your functional status in relation to the specific situations of injury/challenge, postural distortion/biomechanical instability as well as the differing neuro physiological events of daytime and night time” (Centred Space Wellness Group 2026. Neural Organisation Technique).
The assessment used in NOT is applied kinesiology, an invalid diagnostic technique involving muscle testing (see the article "Chelation therapy; Allergy arthritis treatments; Other miscellaneous topics"). Chiropractor and chiropractic critic Samuel Homola wrote, “I consider N.O.T to be total nonsense” (2002. Is Neural Organization Technique valid? Chirobase).
Neurodevelopmental Treatment - see Bobath Concept
Neuro Emotional Technique (NET)
Neuro Emotional Technique was invented by chiropractor Scott Walker. It is based on releasing emotional blocks which produce adverse health effects. The pseudoscientific method of applied kinesiology (see above in connection with Neural Organization Technique) is used to identify problems. Then acupressure and chiropractic adjustments are used for treatment, with applied kinesiology again used to assess progress.
“Research into N.E.T. seems to be limited to a very small group of researchers, with some at Macquarie University in Australia and others at the Marcus Institute of Integrative Health of Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia. Chiropractor Henry Peter Pollard is an author on no fewer than 20 of these papers...Studies into the efficacy of the neuro emotional technique almost always lack a control group or use a poor control group, so that any non-specific effect of the technique (such as talking to a therapist) can make it appear to work” (Jarry 2022 Sep 16. McGill Office for Science and Society).
Neurolinguistic programming
"Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) is a variable system of procedures purported to enable people to communicate more effectively and influence others. Proponents claim that NLP has cured phobias, allergies, and other problems in one or a few brief sessions. Its core postulates are: (a) people are most influenced by messages that reflect how they internally represent whatever they are doing; and (b) this representation is reflected by eye-gaze patterns, posture, tone of voice, and language patterns... A National Research Council committee has found no significant evidence that NLP's theories are sound or that its practices are effective" (Barrett 2008. Mental help: Procedures to avoid. Quackwatch).
A review by Sturt et al. (2012. Br J Gen Pract. 62(604):e757-64) concluded “There is little evidence that NLP interventions improve health-related outcomes. This conclusion reflects the limited quantity and quality of NLP research, rather than robust evidence of no effect.”
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: debatable. Efficacy: negative. Safety: positive. Cost: debatable. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
NeuroModulation Technique (Feinberg Method)
NeuroModulation Technique was invented by a chiropractor, Leslie Feinberg, in 2002. “NeuroModulation Technique (NMT) is based on the proposition that psychophysiological processes occurring in the patient are a reflection of the perceptual/informational state of regulatory processing systems of the mind–body. NMT postulates that the ground on which consciousness manifests itself is within a universal information field that continuously informs the mind–body, orienting it toward wellness. As an intelligent self-correcting system that seeks homeostasis, when pathophysiology occurs, it may be interpreted as some combination of diminished self-awareness and/or corruption of its informational status...NMT practitioners take the position that the ACS [autonomic control system] is intelligent and can comprehend meaningful dialogue that is directed to it. The practitioner investigates the ACS status by using Muscle Response Testing (MRT) to identify clinically relevant query statements/intentions structured upon a clinical topic (such as allergies or immune system functioning)” (Weiner and Greene 2014. Explore (NY). 10(1):13-23). The reference to “universal information field,” a pseudoscientific concept, and employment of muscle response testing (also known as applied kinesiology), an invalid diagnostic procedure, demonstrate that NMT is not a legitimate method.
Optometric Visual Training
"This approach is based on the idea that learning can be improved by exercises that improve coordination of the eye muscles or improve hand-eye coordination. Its proponents assume that the basic problem that leads to reading disability is some deficit in the visual system. The American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Academy of Ophthalmology have criticized this approach and cautioned that no eye-muscle defects can produce the learning disabilities associated with dyslexia" (Barrett 2008. Mental help: Procedures to avoid. Quackwatch).
Patterning (psychomotor patterning; Doman-Delacato Treatment)
Patterning is a method for treatment of mental retardation, learning disabilities, etc. It is based on the scientifically discredited idea that putting a person through series of passive motions (e.g., crawling) can stimulate brain development to more advanced stages. Trials in the 1960's and 1970's showed little or no value.
Rapid Prompting Method - see Facilitated Communication
Recovered memories
During therapy (possibly involving hypnosis), a subject "remembers" early events (e.g., childhood sexual abuse). “Research suggests that memories of sexual abuse may be repressed by a subset of people who experienced abuse, but repressed memories are no more or less accurate than ordinary memories. Research by Elizabeth Loftus showed that people do not recall the past, they reconstruct it. Thus, therapists should be cautious about uncritically believing that clients’ memories are true” (Thomason 2022. Skeptic. 27(1): 29-35). There have been many cases of alienation within families or even criminal prosecution as a result of such "memories." However, many of them are false, created in response to the promptings of the therapist. See also "past-life regression" and "UFO abductee regression" in the Hypnosis section above.
Reflex integration therapy
A description quoted by Hall (2018 May 15. Science-Based Medicine blog) notes that reflex integration is “a novel and non-invasive method of improving developmental delays and central nervous system function in children with a variety of developmental disabilities. This method addresses disorders with a neurologic component, and it is based on the concept that unconditioned reflexes are not static and facilitate adaptation to the external environment, while becoming the foundation for physical, emotional, and cognitive development...emotional outbursts, cognitive deficiencies, or atypical movement patterns may occur if there are deficiencies in the interpretation of sensory information or motor responses are abnormal.”
“Reflex integration therapy claims to relieve a variety of symptoms of a wide range of neurologic conditions including autism, ADHD, brain injuries, pain, Down Syndrome, cerebral palsy, Parkinson’s, and more...Advocates of reflex integration treatments claim to find persistent unconditioned reflexes with associated symptoms...The treatment consists of attempting to integrate these persistent unconditioned reflexes using various exercises and other modalities...The various reflex integration therapies are based on speculative ideas about retained primitive reflexes. We can’t know whether any of them are effective, because they haven’t been scientifically tested” (Hall 2018. Op. cit.).
Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) (brain mapping)
“In traditional health care settings, SPECT imaging is typically used to evaluate neurological diseases, such as stroke, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disorders. The SPECT imaging procedure consists of an IV injection of radioactive material, followed by a nuclear scan of the radioactive material in the brain. There are at least a dozen clinics in the U.S. offering SPECT scans for neuropsychiatric diagnostics and evaluations...At the Amen Clinics, the cost of an initial SPECT evaluation is approximately $4,000" (Nagappan et al. 2021. AJOB Neurosci. 12(4):257-69). Daniel Amen is the leading promoter of the use of SPECT imaging.
“SPECT's value in diagnosing brain injuries is unsettled science and the subject of voluminous research, with some peer-reviewed studies contradicting the findings of others. Amen points to numerous peer-reviewed scientific articles promoting the use of SPECT in psychiatry, including some he authored himself. The American Psychiatric Association, the main professional organization of psychiatrists in the U.S., has published a paper stating that SPECT is not recommended for the diagnosis or treatment of psychiatric disorders, and cautioning that it exposes patients to radiation. In addition, many neuroscientists note that blood flow in the brain can vary based on which parts of the organ are active at any given time, so an area showing low blood flow is not necessarily problematic - and even if it is, there could be a variety of causes, some of them possibly treatable” (Pfeiffer 2021 Dec 23. NPR).
Jarry (2026 Feb 26. McGill Office for Science and Society) provided a critique of Amen’s activities: “Amen says he has done almost 300,000 SPECT scans on people from 155 countries...Amen’s brain scans have revealed, he says, six types of anxiety and depression (two disorders he has combined into a single category), as well as seven types of ADHD and five types of obesity. He has given them names, like ‘temporal lobe anxiety and depression’ and ‘ring of fire ADD.’ He also uses these scans to treat hormonal imbalances, body dysmorphia, and marital difficulties...There does not seem to be a single, rigorous, double-blind, randomized clinical trial of SPECT scans for the types of conditions Dr. Amen uses them for...He claims that Lyme disease is a ‘major cause’ of psychiatric problems; this is patently false, especially given that the U.S. saw roughly 30,000 yearly cases of the disease in the last decade in a population of over 300 million. He uses hyperbaric oxygen chambers for indications they have not been approved for. And the dietary supplements he sells - chiefly a multivitamin, a probiotic, and an omega-3 fatty acid - are not the science-backed, health-changing secrets he markets them as...The risks and downsides of Amen’s SPECT scans are many: from significant (and often) out-of-pocket spendings to the false reassurance of a clean or misleading scan, to what cancer specialists refer to in their field as ‘incidentalomas.’ They are things that look like tumours on a test but that are revealed, after much anxiety and more invasive testing, to be nothing. Basically, a false positive.”
Spelling to Communicate, Spellers Method - see Facilitated Communication
Tension and Trauma Releasing Exercises (TRE)
“TRE™ safely activates the body’s natural reflex of shaking or vibrating, which helps calm the nervous system and release muscular tension. When this process occurs in a safe and controlled environment, the body naturally returns to a balanced state” (TRE For All 2026. What is TRE™?).
“TRE is a series of six exercises starting at the ankles and progressing up the body to the psoas muscle. In turn, the targeted muscles are stretched and then stressed by contracting until a tremor develops. In one exercise, you assume a sitting position with your back against the wall; in the last exercise, you lie on the floor and do various maneuvers to stress your muscles until a tremor develops. The psoas muscle connects the legs to the trunk and is supposedly critical to the prolonged retention of stress after a trauma...Testimonials report relief of anxiety, headaches, pains in various parts of the body, and nightmares; spiritual benefits; increased energy and endurance, improved marital relationships, less worry, better sleep, cure of fibromyalgia, even clearing of blockage in the carotid arteries! Testimonials are notoriously unreliable, and there have been no scientific studies to evaluate clinical benefits. I don’t doubt that TRE relaxes people and can produce placebo responses and subjective improvements due to expectation, suggestion, and other psychological factors. But the rationale and the alleged mechanisms don’t make any sense from a medical or scientific viewpoint. The language they use reeks of energy medicine beliefs and New Age fantasies. The tremors induced by the exercises are simply a natural response to muscle fatigue; they are an annoying side effect of strenuous exercise and they have no documented benefits...People may enjoy the experience and may report subjective improvements, but there is no evidence that it has any objective clinical benefits. Side effects have been reported: mild nausea, headaches, and muscle aches” (Hall 2020 Apr 14. Science-Based Medicine blog).
ThetaHealing - see biofeedback
Thought Field Therapy (TFT)
“According to Wiki, TFT is a fringe psychological treatment developed by an American psychologist, Roger Callahan. Its proponents say that it can heal a variety of mental and physical ailments through specialized ‘tapping’ with the fingers at meridian points on the upper body and hands...There is no scientific evidence that TFT is effective, and the American Psychological Association has stated that it ‘lacks a scientific basis’ and consists of pseudoscience...TFT allegedly ‘gives immediate relief for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), addictions, phobias, fears, and anxieties by directly treating the blockage in the energy flow created by a disturbing thought pattern. It virtually eliminates any negative feeling previously associated with a thought.’ The theory behind TFT is that negative emotions cause energy blockage and if the energy is unblocked then the fears will disappear. Tapping acupressure points is thought to be the means of unblocking the energy” (Ernst 2020 Feb 22. Edzard Ernst blog).
“When a pseudoscientific treatment fails to work, proponents often come up with ad hoc hypotheses. Callahan explained failures of his thought field therapy by positing ‘individual energy toxins,’ which could be any substance consumed or inhaled, including common foods. He made patients severely restrict their diets for no good reason” (Hall 2019 Apr 30. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Edzard Ernst rating: Plausibility: negative. Efficacy: negative. Safety: positive. Cost: debatable. Risk/benefit balance: negative.
Transcranial brain stimulation - see brain stimulation
Vagus nerve stimulation
In vagus nerve stimulation a pacemaker-like device is implanted in order to stimulate the nerve with the aim of treating depression. The FDA approved one such device against the recommendation of its own review committee. However, Medicare decided not to provide reimbursement: "'Vagus nerve stimulation is not reasonable and necessary for treatment of resistant depression,' and research 'provides little evidence that a patient will experience a health benefit as a direct result of VNS therapy’" (Barglow 2008. Skeptical Inquirer. 32(5):35-40).
Virtual reality therapy
“Goldman Sachs expects total revenue from the VR industry to hit $95 billion in 2025, of which over $5 billion could come from medical applications...Right now, though, its proponents still have a lot to prove. Although individual studies of people with chronic pain have shown that VR can offer relief, a 2014 review of 17 studies of people with acute pain revealed that relief was mostly short-lived. And for psychological conditions like social-anxiety disorder, a 2015 study showed in-person therapy worked better than VR...[For treatment of PTSD] It’s a more immersive version of exposure therapy, a common psychological treatment in which people talk repeatedly about traumatic events in order to process them...It’s less clear how or why VR relieves chronic pain, since it’s a very new type of treatment. The prevailing theory is that it offers a distraction. Since humans can pay attention to only one or two things at a time, creating an environment that blocks everything out and makes them focus on a task...makes it harder to focus on pain” (Sifferlin 2016 Sep 5. Time).
“Therefore - a VR experience, which can be very compelling, could be a convenient and effective method of exposure for PTSD exposure based therapy. The clinician can theoretically have complete control over the exposure. A soldier can actually be placed in a virtual battlefield...There are two systematic reviews published in 2019 which essentially come to the same conclusion. VR-based exposure therapy for PTSD is at least as effective as current active treatments, and superior to controls. However, it may not work significantly better than current treatments” (Novella 2019 Dec 4. Science-Based Medicine blog).
“On November 16, 2021 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced that it had authorized marketing of EaseVRx, which they described as ‘a prescription-use immersive virtual reality (VR) system that uses cognitive behavioral therapy and other behavioral methods to help with pain reduction in patients 18 years of age and older with diagnosed chronic lower back pain’...Virtual reality has been used for other medical applications, such as exposure therapy for anxiety, phobias, and PTSD...While I cannot understand why the FDA relied on a study with no valid control group, I applaud their approval of EaseVRx. As with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) it may be no more than a gimmick to enlist the patient’s cooperation with effective treatments like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)” (Hall 2021 Nov 23. Science-Based Medicine blog).
Walsh protocol
“The Walsh Institute, founded by William J. Walsh, is ‘dedicated to unraveling the biochemistry of mental disorders and development of improved clinical treatments through scientific research and medical practitioner education.’ It aims to bring advanced biochemical therapy to patients with ADHD, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, anxiety, clinical depression, behavior disorders, autism, and neurodegenerative disorders. These goals sound very worthy, but they have produced no credible clinical studies to evaluate the efficacy of their recommendations. The Walsh protocol is basically just an updated version of a decades-old questionable approach called orthomolecular psychiatry...The Walsh Institute website cites Pfeiffer’s Law: ‘For every drug that benefits a patient, there is a natural substance that can achieve the same effect.’ That’s not a law, that’s just wishful thinking... The Institute has trained more than 600 practitioners in specialized (but unvalidated) lab testing, diagnosis of chemical imbalances, and individualized treatments, and they claim to have thousands of reports of recovery...but unless they start publishing meaningful controlled clinical trials, I see no reason to take them seriously” (Hall 2019 May 28. Science-Based Medicine blog).
REFERENCES
See also references for review articles in the text.
Mind-body medicine - general
NCCIH. 2025. Mind and body practices
NCCIH. 2020. Stress
Mind-body medicine - critiques
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Ernst E. 2023 Apr 19. Stress management for patients with irritable bowel syndrome? Edzard Ernst
Mind-body medicine: techniques
Ernst E. 2023 Apr 4. Guided imagery for postoperative pain control? Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2024 Sep 14. When laughter might indeed be the best therapy. Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2025 Jun 25. Is laughter really the best therapy? Edzard Ernst
NCCIH. 2022. Meditation and mindfulness: effectiveness and safety
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Ernst E. 2022 Mar 8. Meditation for chronic low back pain management? Edzard Ernst
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Ernst E. 2022 Feb 12. Mindfulness: not nearly as effective as it is currently made out to be. Edzard Ernst
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Ernst E. 2018 Aug 20. Is music a practical therapy for hypertension? Sadly not, I think. Edzard Ernst
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NCCIH. 2021. Relaxation techniques: What you need to know
Placebo effects
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Hall H. 2019 Dec 3. Alternative medicine: Placebos for pets. Science-Based Medicine
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Hypnosis
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Ernst E. 2022 Jul 27. Hypnotherapy for third molar extraction: A randomized clinical trial. Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2024 Dec 6. Treatment of plantar warts using hypnosis?…No! Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2026 May 3. Zack Polanski, the hypnotherapist in UK politics. Edzard Ernst
Biofeedback
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Kalokairinou L, Specker Sullivan L, Wexler A. 2022. Neurofeedback as placebo: a case of unintentional deception? J Med Ethics. 48(12):1037-42
Jarry J. ThetaHealing®: The money you’ll spend never existed. McGill Office for Science and Society
Causes and treatments of autism
NCCIH. 2024. Autism
Barrett S (ed.). Autism Watch
FDA Consumer Health Information. 2014. Beware of false or misleading claims for treating autism
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Sinha Y, Silove N, Hayen A, Williams K. 2011. Auditory integration training and other sound therapies for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. CD003681
Barrett S. 2010. Boyd Haley ordered to stop illegal marketing of OSR#1. Autism Watch
Barrett S. 2015. A critical look at Defeat Autism Now! and the “DAN! Protocol." Quackwatch
Barrett S. 2015. Secretin found ineffective for treating autism. Quackwatch
Levinovitz A. 2015 Apr 29. An alternative-medicine believer’s journey back to science. Wired [Jim and Louise Laidler’s experiences with treatments for their autistic sons]
Opar A. 2016 Sep 22. The dangers of snake-oil treatments for autism. Atlantic
Gorski D (“Orac”). 2017 Jan 25. Another reminder that there is no autism epidemic. Respectful Insolence
Offit P. 2017 Feb 12. MMS: A rogue new “lobotomy” for autistic children. Daily Beast
Chivers T. 2017 Aug 28. How online filter bubbles are making parents of autistic children targets for fake “cures.” BuzzFeed
Hall H. 2017 Oct 10. Preying on the vulnerable: Electrodiagnostics, Bach flower remedies, and sound therapy for autism, ADHD, and learning problems. Science-Based Medicine [Karyne Jeanne Richardson]
Barrett S. 2018. A skeptical look at Respen-A and its promoters. Autism Watch
Gorski D (“Orac”). 2018 Feb 16. Parents are still feeding their children bleach to “cure” their autism. Respectful Insolence
Bellamy J. 2018 Apr 26. “Dr. Amy” Yasko’s autism protocol: Unproven, complicated and expensive. Science-Based Medicine
Lindly OJ, Thorburn S, Heisler K, Reyes NM, Zuckerman KE. 2018. Parents' use of complementary health approaches for young children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 48(5):1803-18
Ernst E. 2018 May 27. Seven things you might want to know about ‘CEASE’ therapy (as practised by homeopaths and naturopaths). Edzard Ernst
Novella S. 2018 Sep 5. Chelation therapy for autism is quackery. Science-Based Medicine
Bölte S, Girdler S, Marschik PB. 2019. The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder. Cell Mol Life Sci. 76(7):1275-97
Merlan A. 2019 Mar 20. Jenny McCarthy's autism charity has helped its board members make money off dangerous, discredited ideas. Jezebel
Zadrozny B. 2019 May 21. Parents are poisoning their children with bleach to 'cure' autism. These moms are trying to stop it. NBC News
Gorski D (“Orac”). 2019 Jun 19. Generation Rescue: Rebranding in service of autism grift? Respectful Insolence
Fraguas D, Díaz-Caneja CM, Pina-Camacho L, Moreno C, Durán-Cutilla M et al. 2019. Dietary interventions for autism spectrum disorder: A Meta-analysis. `Pediatrics. 144(5):e20183218
Gorski D (“Orac”). 2020 Oct. 14. Duke University’s stem cell program for autism: The dark(er) side of quackademic medicine. Respectful Insolence
Gorski D (“Orac”). 2021 Oct 8. Quackademic medicine at the Marcus Center for Cellular Cures: Stem cells for autism. Respectful Insolence
English C. 2021 Dec 31. Refuting 'Crazy Joe' Mercola's glyphosate-autism scare story. American Council on Science and Health
Novella S. 2022 Apr 6. Fetal signs of autism. Science-Based Medicine [“More evidence that ASD is a developmental disorder that begins in the womb.”]
Knoepfler P. 2022 Sep 6. Review of cord banker Viacord: dubious autism claims & other concerns. The Niche
Gilbert D. 2023 Mar 16. Inside the private group where parents give ivermectin to kids with autism. Vice
Jones C. 2023 Apr 14. Lithium in tap water probably doesn’t cause autism. Science-Based Medicine
Suleta K. 2024 Aug 6. “Cures” for autism, and conflicts of interest. American Council on Science and Health
Novella S. 2025 Sep 10. Tylenol and autism. Science-Based Medicine
Ernst E. 2025 Sep 23. Trump, Kennedy and Oz just announced plenty of untruths about autism and its treatment. Edzard Ernst
Love A. 2025 Sep 23. The Tylenol-autism pseudoscience pipeline. ImmunoLogic
Gorski D (“Orac”). 2025 Sep 24. The Four Horseman of the Woo-pocalypse join President Trump to spread autism pseudoscience and quackery. Respectful Insolence
Vogel G. 2025 Sep 25. Autism initiative embraces little-tested vitamin as a treatment. Science. 389(6767):1282-3
Ernst E. 2025 Sep 28. The ‘acetaminophen debacle’: Trump and RFKJr have blood on their hands … and here is why. Edzard Ernst
Doherty M, Foley KR, Schloss J. 2025. Complementary and alternative medicine for autism - A systematic review. J Autism Dev Disord. 55(10):3689-99
Jarry J. 2025 Sep 25. All about the Tylenol-autism brouhaha. McGill Office for Science and Society
Ernst E. 2025 Oct 10. Circumcision and autism: Robert F, Kennedy Jr. just volunteered more proof of his extreme incompetence. Edzard Ernst
Kolata G, Ghorayshi A. 2025 Oct 14. A furious debate over autism’s causes leaves parents grasping for answers. New York Times
Gosling CJ, Boisseleau L, Solmi M, Sandbank M, Jurek L et al. 2025. Complementary, alternative and integrative medicine for autism: an umbrella review and online platform. Nat Hum Behav. 9(12):2610-9
Schwarcz J. 2025 Nov 26. Don’t look for a miracle in “Miracle Mineral Supplement (MMS).” McGill Office for Science and Society
Cha A. 2025 Dec 14. A Trump-touted drug for autism is now in demand, but doctors see a dilemma. Washington Post
Mitchell KJ, Dahly DL, Bishop DVM. 2026. Conceptual and methodological flaws undermine claims of a link between the gut microbiome and autism. Neuron. 114(2):196-211
Mole B. 2026 Jan 13. FDA deletes warning on bogus autism therapies touted by RFK Jr.‘s allies. Ars Technica
Ernst E. 2026 Jan 21. So-called alternative medicine (SCAM) for autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Edzard Ernst
Novella S. 2026 Feb 11. Latest autism data. Science-Based Medicine
Mole B. 2026 Mar 10. FDA contradicts Trump admin, declines to approve generic drug for autism. Ars Technica
Treatment of other conditions
NCCIH. 2020. Mental health [anxiety, depression, SAD]
Stea JN. 2020 Dec 11. Pseudoscientific treatments for addiction are everywhere. Psychology Today
Novella S. 2016 Jun 22. MEND protocol for Alzheimer’s disease. Science-Based Medicine
Gorski D (“Orac”). 2016 Jun 24. The MEND™ protocol for Alzheimer’s disease: Functional medicine on steroids? (revisited). Respectful Insolence
Butler M, Nelson VA, Davila H, Ratner E, Fink HA, et al. 2018. Over-the-counter supplement interventions to prevent cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment, and clinical Alzheimer-type dementia: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 168(1):52-62
Hall H. 2018 May 29. Mosconi’s brain food diet. Science-Based Medicine [Alzheimer’s]
Hellmuth J, Rabinovici GD, Miller BL. 2019. The rise of pseudomedicine for dementia and brain health. JAMA. 321(6):543-4
Ernst E. 2023 Feb 27. Natural remedies for Alzheimer’s disease. Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2023 Sep 19. Does mind body exercise improve cognitive function? Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2026 Mar 3. Does coffee and tea consumption reduce the dementia risk and improve cognitive function? Edzard Ernst
NCCIH. 2019. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder at a glance
Federal Trade Commission. 2000 May 11. Marketers of various dietary supplements settle FTC charges that they made unsubstantiated claims that their products could cure ADHD. Press release,
Novella S. 2018 Mar 21. Music for ADHD? Science-Based Medicine
MacBeth B. 2019 Jan 4. The Drugless Doctor’s ADHD nonsense. Science-Based Medicine
Ernst E. 2025 Dec 9. Which ADHD interventions are effective? An umbrella review. Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2021 Dec 9. Mind-body therapies for cancer patients. Edzard Ernst
Pfeiffer S. 2021 Dec 23. Everyday people fear they have CTE. A dubious market has sprung up to treat them. NPR
Nahas R, Sheikh S. 2011. Complementary and alternative medicine for the treatment of major depressive disorders. Can Fam Physician. 57(6):659-63
Haller H, Anheyer D, Cramer H, Dobos G. 2019. Complementary therapies for clinical depression: an overview of systematic reviews. BMJ Open. 9(8):e028527
Leshin L. 1998. Nutritional supplements for Down syndrome: A highly questionable approach. Quackwatch
NCCIH. 2019. Seasonal affective disorder
Jones C. 2022 Aug 5. More false hope for people with Tourette syndrome. Science-Based Medicine
Joyce E. 2025 Aug 21. Oral splints to help tic control in people with Tourette syndrome: A review of the evidence. Tourettes Action
Other unconventional practices related to mental health
Barrett S. 2008. Mental help: Procedures to avoid. Quackwatch
Hupp S, Travers J, Marino L, Lilienfeld SO, Jarrett C et al. 2020. Dubious claims in psychotherapy for youth. Part 1: Neurodevelopmental issues. Skeptical Inquirer 44(1):36-41
Hall H. 2021 Mar 30. Access Consciousness: A new version of phrenology? Science-Based Medicine
Ernst E. 2021 Dec 30. “Access Consciousness,” alternative medicine or cult? Edzard Ernst
Mercer J. 2013. Attachment therapies and associated parenting techniques. Institute for Science in Medicine
Ernst E. 2019 Dec 20. Autogenic training is an effective therapy for managing stress. Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2023 Oct 24. A promising so-called alternative medicine (SCAM) invented by a despicable Nazi. Edzard Ernst [autogenic training]
Novella S. 2023 Jun 14. Dubious autonomic nervous system claims. Science-Based Medicine
Gavura S. 2022 Feb 17. The (binaural) beat goes on. Science-Based Medicine
Hall H. 2022 Oct 18. The Bobath Concept for cerebral palsy and stroke rehabilitation. Science-Based Medicine
Novella S. 2025 May 14. Brainspotting is classic pseudoscience. Science-Based Medicine
Novella S. 2016 Mar 23. Zap your way to learning? Science-Based Medicine [brain stimulation]
Novella S. 2017 Jul 12. Brain wave pseudoscience. Science-Based Medicine [brain stimulation]
Coates McCall I, Lau C, Minielly N, Illes J. 2019. Owning ethical innovation: Claims about commercial wearable brain technologies. Neuron. 102(4):728-31
Novella S. 2022 Aug 24. Brain stimulation for memory. Science-Based Medicine
Barrett S. 2009. A skeptical look at Linda Schaumleffel's “Power Brain Fitness” program. Quackwatch [brain training]
Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Stanford Center on Longevity. 2014. A consensus on the brain training industry from the scientific community
Federal Trade Commission. 2016. Luminosity to pay $2 million to settle FTC deceptive advertising charges for its “brain training” program
Novella S. 2023 Apr 12. What is dopamine detox? Science-Based Medicine
Novella S. 2024 Jan 10. Dual sympathetic reset for PTSD. Science-Based Medicine
Ernst E. 2017 Feb 18. Emotional Freedom Techniques: More “alternative facts” from “The Journal of Complementary and Alternative Medicine.” Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2018 Oct 15. Emotional Freedom Technique, a combination of two types of BS. Edzard Ernst
Novella S. 2022 Apr 27. Emotional Freedom Technique - acupuncture for the mind. Science-Based Medicine
Ernst E. 2025 Sep 10. Emotional Freedom Technique for pain and depression in cancer patients? Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2019 Oct 9. Enneagram + homeopathy = ??? (spoiler: nonsense + nonsense = nonsense). Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2023 Jan 9. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), the treatment Harry Windsor uses. Edzard Ernst
Rosen GM and Pankratz L. 2024. Eye movement therapies, purple hats, and the Sagan standard. Skeptical Inquirer. 48(5):54-7
Novella S. 2024 Oct 23. EMDR is still dubious. Science-Based Medicine
Facilitated Communication. Website with resources on “a thoroughly discredited but persistent technique”
Lilienfeld SC, Marshall J, Todd, JT, Shane HC. 2014. The persistence of fad interventions in the face of negative scientific evidence: Facilitated Communication for autism as a case example. Ev-Based Commun Assess Intervention 8(2):62-101
Shermer M. 2016. The quack of the gaps problem. Facilitated communication, autism, and patients’ rights. Scientific American. 315(2):75
Novella S. 2018 Mar 14. Facilitated Communication rears its ugly head again. Science-Based Medicine
Gorski D. (“Orac”) 2018 Jun 19. The University of Northern Iowa promotes facilitated communication quackery. Respectful Insolence
Gorski D. (“Orac”) 2018 Jun 21. The facilitated communication empire strikes back over the Midwest Summer Institute. Respectful Insolence
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association 2018. Facilitated Communication. Position Statement
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association 2018. Rapid Prompting method. Position Statement
Hemsley B, Bryant L, Schlosser RW, Shane HC, Lang R et al. 2018. Systematic review of facilitated communication 2014–2018 finds no new evidence that messages delivered using facilitated communication are authored by the person with disability. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 3
Vyse S. 2019 Jan 16. National Down Syndrome Society promotes communication pseudoscience. Skeptical Inquirer
Novella S. 2019 Dec 18. Decision against Spelling to Communicate - A small victory for science. Science-Based Medicine
Vyse S. 2020 May 20. Of eye movements and autism: The latest chapter in a continuing controversy. Skeptical Inquirer [Rapid Prompting Method]
Boynton JL. 2021. Fresh thinking or exploitation? Skeptical Inquirer. 45(2):60-1 [review of Deej]
Novella S. 2022 Apr 13. Facilitated Communication is still pseudoscience. Science-Based Medicine
Vyse S. 2023 May 16. The journal Nature falls for autism pseudoscience. Skeptical Inquirer [Facilitated Communication and variants]
Beals K. 2023 May 24. A review of the movie Spellers: a documercial for Spelling to Communicate. facilitatedcommunication.org
Australasian Society for Intellectual Disability 2024. ASID position statement on Facilitated Communication and Rapid Prompting Method
Hemsley B, Beals K, Lang R, Schlosser RW, Shane H et al. 2025. Safeguarding the communication rights of minimally- or non-speaking people who are vulnerable to Facilitated Communication, Rapid Prompting (Spellers Method) and variants. Res Pract Intellect 12(2):158-78
Novella S. 2025 Feb 5. The Telepathy Tapes - More FC pseudoscience. Science-Based Medicine
Jacobsen SD. 2025 Nov 14. Stuart Vyse on autism pseudoscience: Facilitated communication, S2C, and “Telepathy Tapes.” Good Men Project
Coyne J. 2026 Apr 16. NBC and the NYT appear to be duped by a discredited technique: facilitated communication. Why Evolution is True
Vyse S. 2026 Apr 21. The scandal of Woody Brown’s Upward Bound. Skeptical Inquirer [Facilitated Communication and variants]
Hall H. 2018 Jan 30. Broken Brain. Science-Based Medicine [functional medicine]
Novella S. 2019 Oct 23. Holotropic breathwork. Science-Based Medicine
Luke J. Integrative psychiatry. Science-Based Medicine
Novella S. 2019 Feb 20. Keto diet for neurological disorders. Science-Based Medicine
Ernst E. 2020 Jun 1. The “Lightning Process”: implausible, unproven, hyped and expensive. Edzard Ernst
Ernst E. 2023 Mar 30. The “Lightning Process” (LP), an effective therapy for ME [myalgic encephalomyelitis]? Edzard Ernst
Homola S. 2002. Is Neural Organization Technique valid? Chirobase
Jarry 2022 Sep 16. The Neuro Emotional Technique Is a bizarre hybrid of chiropractic, acupuncture, and applied kinesiology. McGill Office for Science and Society
Ernst E. 2020 Jan 10. Neurolinguistic programming is being promoted by Prince Charles’ “College of Medicine and Integrated Health.” Edzard Ernst
Novella S. 2008. Psychomotor patterning: A critical look. Quackwatch
Hall H. 2018 May 15. Reflex integration therapy. Science-Based Medicine
Hall H. 2008 Apr 8. SPECT scans at the Amen Clinic - A new phrenology? Science-Based Medicine
Hall H. 2013 Mar 9. Dr. Amen's love affair with SPECT scans. Science-Based Medicine
Jarry J. 2026 Feb 26. Everyone else is wrong: The Dr. Amen story. McGill Office for Science and Society
Hall H. 2020 Apr 14. Tension and Trauma Releasing Exercises (TRE). Science-Based Medicine
Gaudiano BA, Herbert JD. 2000. Can we really tap our problems away? A critical analysis of Thought Field Therapy. Skeptical Inquirer 24(4):29-33, 36
Ernst E. 2020 Feb 22. Thought Field Therapy: A course offered by the “College of Quack Medicine.” Edzard Ernst
Novella S. 2019 Dec 4. Virtual reality treatment for PTSD? Science-Based Medicine
Hall H. 2021 Nov 23. Virtual reality therapy. Science-Based Medicine
Hall H. 2019 May 28. Treating mental illness with nutrition: The Walsh Protocol. Science-Based Medicine