AFRICAN STUDIES

COURSE:

AFRICAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

INTRODUCTION

Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people and groups define themselves, conform to society's shared values, and contribute to society. Thus, culture includes many societal aspects: This latter term institution refers to clusters of rules and cultural meanings associated with specific social activities. Common institutions are the family, education, religion, work, and health care.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN CULTURE

The culture of Africa is varied and manifold, consisting of a mixture of tribes that each have their own unique characteristics. African Culture has got the following characteristics;

-Each Culture in Africa has a specific language,

-Culture also has customs and belief

-There are cultural values in each Culture

-Specific norms are found

-Culture has got Morality

-Culture has specific rules,

-Culture has specific tools and technology for work

-There are specific products in each culture.

-There are organizations, institutions within the culture

BRIEF ORIGIN OF CULTURE AND MIGRATION OF AFRICAN PEOPLES

African Culture It is a product of the diverse populations that today inhabit the continent of Africa and the African Diaspora.

WITHIN AFRICA

The most recent common ancestor shared by all living human beings, dubbed Mitochondrial Eve, probably lived roughly 120–150 millennia ago, the time of Homo sapiens idaltu, probably in East Africa

The broad study of African genetic diversity headed by Dr. Sarah Tishkoff found the San people to express the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters." The research also located the origin of modern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.

Around 100,000-80,000 years ago, three main lines of Homo sapiens diverged. Bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup colonized Southern Africa (the ancestors of the Khoisan ( peoples), bearers of haplogroup settled Central and West Africa (the ancestors of western pygmies), and bearers of haplo groups and others remained in East Africa (the ancestors of Niger–Congo- and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples).

Africa has influenced and been influenced by other countries. This can be portrayed in the willingness to adapt to the ever changing modern world rather than staying rooted to their static culture. The Westernized few, persuaded by European culture and Christianity, first denied African traditional culture, but with the increase of African nationalism, a cultural recovery occurred. The governments of most African nations encourage national dance and music groups, museums, and to a lower degree, artists and writers.

African culture is expressed in its arts and crafts, folklore and religion, clothing, cuisine, music and languages. Africa is so full of culture, with it not only changing from one country to another, but within a single country, many cultures can be discovered. Even though African cultures are widely diverse, it is also, when closely studied, seen to have many similarities. For example, the morals they uphold, their love and respect for their culture as well as the strong respect they hold for the aged and the important i.e Kings and Chiefs.

SOCIETY

Society is a large group of people who live together in an organized way, making decisions about how to do things and sharing the work that needs to be done. All the people in a country, or in several similar countries, can be referred to as a society:

Sociologists define society also as the people who interact in such a way as to share a common culture. The cultural bond may be ethnic or racial, based on gender, or due to shared beliefs, values, and activities. The term society can also have a geographic meaning and refer to people who share a common culture in a particular location. For example, people living in arctic climates developed different cultures from those living in desert cultures. In time, a large variety of human cultures arose around the world.

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIETY IN AFRICA

-Society is very important in Africa because it brings people together with love and unity.

-People will be able to share ideas together especially on how to deal with some problems arising.

-Society help to organize the social structure in the community.for example in dealing with leadersip issues.etc

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Culture and society are intricately related. A culture consists of the “objects” of a society, whereas a society consists of the people who share a common culture. When the terms culture and society first acquired their current meanings, most people in the world worked and lived in small groups in the same locale. In today's world of 6 billion people, these terms have lost some of their usefulness because increasing numbers of people interact and share resources globally.

AFRICAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Much of what we know about Ancient African society comes from the writings of foreign visitors. African towns began as fortified villages, which grew into larger communities that served several purposes Towns were center of government Towns had markets with goods from trade Towns had artists who made pottery, tools, woodwork, and other crafts Farmers could trade their crops for goods

Inmost African societies, the ruler would hold audiences with commoners The king was held in a position high above other people in the kingdom The relationship of the king to his subjects was beneficial to both sides Merchants received favors from the king, while the king received taxes The king maintained law and order, which allowed the merchants to practice their trade

People who lived in villages generally lived with extended family and/or lineage groups The extended family was made up of parents/grandparents/children and other family members Lineage groups were the extended family that may live in separate homes in the same village, and were all related ¢ Lineage groups were the basic building block of African society Members of the same lineage group could claim relation to a common ancestor Leading members of the group had power over the others The lineage group provided support for its members, taking care of one another

Women were usually subordinate to men in Africa, as they were in most early societies around the world Women often worked in the fields while men hunted or took care of the cattle One critical difference between African women and women from other areas of the world was that lineage was based on the mother; African society was matrilineal, based on the mother. (Most other societies were patrilineal – based on the father. Women were permitted to inherit property and often a new husband would move into his wife’s house

In the Congo, children were raised by their mothers and were prepared to become part of the community They learned language, family history, and music from their mothers At age 6, the sexes were separated and the fathers began to take an active role in educating their sons ¡ Boys learned to hunt and fish Girls learned to work in the villages and fields As they aged, children were given increasing responsibilities until they fully entered the community, usually at puberty. Their transition was marked by ceremonies and/or rituals

Slavery was practiced in Africa even in ancient times Berber groups in North Africa raided farming villages south of the Sahara for captives ¢ The captives were taken northward and sold throughout the Mediterranean as domestic slaves or soldiers Slavery was common in south and East Africa. Slaves were captives, conquered peoples, debtors, and criminalsž Life was difficult for most slaves, who often worked long, hard hoursž In Muslim societies and Asia, some slaves could earn their freedom

Early African religions varied from place to place, although most shared some common ideas The Yoruba people of Nigeria believed that their chief god sent his son Oduduwa from Heaven to create the first humans The Ashanti people of Ghana believed in a supreme being called Nyame, whose sons were lesser gods. Each son served a different purpose, like making rain or sunshine. Most African religions had rituals and ceremonies One way to communicate with the gods was through diviners, or people who believe they have the power to foretell events by communicating with supernatural forces

A key element in African religions was the importance of ancestors Each lineage group could trace itself back to a founding ancestor or group of ancestors Ritual ceremonies were dedicated to ancestors Many African religions shared a belief in the afterlife They believed life existed in two stages: earth and the afterlife, where the soul floated for eternity

African religious beliefs were challenged by Islam, but not always replaced Islam swept rapidly across the northern coast after the Arab conquest Islam was spread as a result of trade throughout Africa ¡ The first ruling family to convert to Islam were the Gao’s Islam spread even more slowly in East Africa Christianity dominated much of the region Was more successful when Swahili culture emerged

Earliest forms of African art were rock paintings, dating back as far as 4000 BCE Wood carving existed throughout Africa. Carvers made elaborate masks and statues Clay and metal figurines were found in Nigeria that demonstrated a flourishing cultureMetalworkers produced bronze and iron statues African music and dance was extensive and often served a religious purpose Griots were storytellers who kept African traditions and history as part of their stories

AFRICAN RITES OF PASSAGE

Rites of passage play a central role in African socialization, demarking the different stages in an individuals development (gender and otherwise), as well as that person's relationship and role to the broader community. The major stage in African life is the transition from child to adult when they become fully institutionalized to the ethics of the group's culture. Rites of passage are for this reason critical in nation building and identity formation.

Rites of passage thus serve a double purpose; preserving the ongoing community as a symbol of collective immortality and permanence as well as providing a clear and guided means for transition from one life stage and sphere of responsibility to another. They thus confirm the hierarchies of values of the community and project an ideal sequence of personal development the individual can look forward to and upon reaching each stage, evaluate his or her maturation against a collective standard. African initiation rites link the individual to the community and the community to the broader and more potent spirit world. Initiation rites are proven to be a necessary extension of many communities and are as necessary and natural as are arms and legs are a natural and necessary extension of the human body. Rites of passage provide the African with the foundation of his or her being: Identity. Sexual identity and the roles of gender identity are enshrined through rites of passage:, The males are prepared for their responsibilities in the community as men, and the women prepared for their responsibilities in the nation as women– with no confusion.

The process and details of initiation differ among societies; song, dance, masks, various tests/ordeals, tattooing, etc. have been utilized as verification and ritual symbolism. And emphasis varies by society, some focus on bravery and toughness, others spiritual aspects or practical education.

MAJOR AFRICAN INITIATION RITES

There are five major African initiation rites which are fundamental to human growth and development. These rites were originally established by African ancestors while they were living in order to link the individual to the community and the community to the broader and more potent spiritual world. Initiation rites are a natural and necessary part of a community, as are arms and legs natural and necessary extension of the human body. These rites are critical to individual and community development, and it should not to be taken for granted that people automatically grow and develop into responsible, community-oriented adults.

The process of initiation concerns undergoing a fundamental set of rites to start a new phase or beginning in life. It marks the passing from one phase in life to the next more mature phase. Initiation fundamentally has to do with transformation, and has been a central component of traditional African cultures since time immemorial. The five rites are birth, adulthood, marriage, eldership, and ancestorship.

1.RITE OF BIRTH

The Rite of Birth is the first of the major African initiation rites and it involves initiating the infant into the world through a ritual and naming ceremony. Nearly all African cultures hold that the infant has come from the spirit world with important information from that world, and is bringing unique talents and gifts to offer to the community. The infant, in fact, is believed to have been commissioned to come to the world and accomplish a particular mission or project, and often has a great message to deliver.

Therefore, it is the responsibility of the family and community to discover the infant’s unique mission through consultations with a diviner and to have rituals and a birth chart done. This is done to clearly determine the new community member’s mission in order to guide him/her through their life path. The infant’s name is given after the determination of the mission and it is a reflection of the infant’s personality or the life mission itself.

2.RITE OF ADULTHOOD

The Rite of Adulthood is the second major initiation rite and it is nowadays the most popular among the set of rites. Most people today assume that “rites of passage” only refers to initiation into adulthood, and they are often not aware that adulthood rites are only one set of rites within a larger system of rites. Adulthood rites are usually done at the onset puberty age (around 12-13 years of age in many cultures) and they are to ensure the shaping of productive, community-oriented responsible adults. There is nothing automatic about youth being productive members of society, nor is there anything particularly difficult about transitioning from a child to an adult. This transition to adulthood is exceedingly difficult in Western societies because there are no systems of adulthood rites to systematically guide and direct the young person through this important stage in his or her life cycle.

In Western culture adulthood is seen as a status achieved at the age of 18 or 21, or simply when the person graduates from high school. Unfortunately, in most cases there is no fundamental guidance or transformation from a child to an adult that is required or expected. This “leave it for chance” approach to adulthood development is the root of most teenage and youth “adult” confusion, chaos, and uncertainty. When the youth reach a certain age, somehow they are expected to magically transformed into an “adult,” eventhough they often receive very little guidance.

On the other hand, African societies systematically initiate boys and girls. They often take the young initiates out of the community, and away from the concerns of everyday life, to teach them all the ways of adulthood: including the rules and taboos of the society; moral instruction and social responsibility; and further clarification of his/her mission or calling in life.

3. RITE OF MARRIAGE

The Rite of Marriage is the third major initiation rite and it represents not only the joining of two families, but also the joining of the two missions of the new couple. In other words, the marriage rites are performed for not only the coming together of male and females to procreate and perpetuate life and the coming together of families, it is also an institution that helps both the husband and wife to best fulfill their mission and objectives in life. Unfortunately, in Western society a vast number of marriages fail as they are often based upon the couple “falling in love” and thereby entering the relationship in an unbalanced state. Individual often “fall in love” quick and “fall out of love” just as quickly, as soon as they recover from the emotional “love at first site” syndrome. African society, on the other hand, does not emphasize individual looks and lust as the primary motivation for marriage, but rather the basic focus is on building families and communities. The focus is on the collective more than the individual. A person is not generally considered an adult until they have married and had children.

4. RITE OF ELDERSHIP

The Rite of Eldership is the fourth major initiation rite and it is an important component of the initiation system, because it is the elders who represent tradition and the wisdom of the past. In African culture, there is a fundamental distinction that has to be made between an “elder” and “older” person. An older person has simply lived a longer life than most of people, but it not considered one who deserves high praise and respect. This is because the older person’s life has not been a positive example for the community. An older person could be a thief or drunkard, an evil person, or could be someone who never married and had children, and thus these examples would certainly prevent a person from being considered a respected elder.

An elder, on the other hand, is someone who is given the highest status in African culture because s(he) has lived a life of purpose, and there is nothing more respected than living a purposeful life. The life of an elder is centered in the best tradition of the community, and is someone who has gone through all of the previous three rites, and is a living model for the other groups in the society to emulate. An elder is given the highest status and along with new infants because these two groups represent the closest links to the wisdom of the spirit world.

5. RITE OF ANCESTORSHIP

The last of the five major rites is the Rite of Ancestorship, which concerns passing over into the spirit world. This final initiation rite is an extension of the elder/older distinction because the status that a person has in life is the same status that they bring with them when they pass on. There is virtually no African society that believes that when a person dies this ends all ties and communication with the living. Rather, African philosophy from one culture to another agrees that the spirit of the deceased is still with the living community, and that a distinction must be made in the status of the various spirits, as there are distinctions made in the status of the living.

One of the most important distinctions is the difference between an older person who dies and who is seen as nothing more than a “dead relative,” and a respected elder who passes on and is revered as an honored “ancestor.” The dead relative dies without honor and is someone who is not remembered as a great person or someone who should be followed or emulated. On the other hand, a respected elder who passes on becomes a respected ancestor and is given the highest honor. This group of ancestor wield great power and are often called upon in matters of trouble or uncertainty to help influence a favorable outcome. Thus, ancestors are respected elders who have passed away and who continue to serve as an extension of the family and community.

TABOOS AND TOTEMS

Taboo (also tabu) could be seen as a social or religious custom placing prohibition or restriction on a particular thing or person. It could also be defined as those acts, behaviour or tendency that are prohibited or restricted by social custom. A tabu can also be seen as something that is designated as sacred and prohibited.

In a traditional and culturally minded society like Africa’s, it shouldn’t surprise anyone to find out that there are many African taboos which are put in place to control and guide the different individuals in that very community so as to achieve harmony and oneness.

Sometimes these African taboos could be quite ridiculous as you will soon see. Sometimes they really serve as a great lesson because many people who have actually gone against the stated law/s never lived to tell the story.

The unconscious belief and practice of such taboos also stems from the fact that there are many superstitious beliefs associated with Africans.

Some of the examples of Taboos in Africa are:

1. Adultery

It is not a question of this being against the Ten Commandments because it is clearly beyond that. Adultery is seriously frowned at in many African culture and anybody who is caught in the act is in real serious trouble.

2. Marriage blessings

Marriage blessings from the parents of the girl involved is believed to be a MUST if that very marriage is expected to work and blossom.In Nigeria It is generally believed that in marriages whereby there was none of such blessings, marital problem such as barrenness, infidelity, divorce and sometimes, even early death are always bound to occur!

3. Having sexual relations with blood sisters

Many people in Africa says that it one easy way of attracting all forms to evil such as epilepsy, blindness, poverty, lack of progress or success in life, and in extreme cases, even death into the life of the man who engages himself in such relationship.

4. Killing and eating of certain animals

When you travel to many parts in Africa you may be astoundingly discover that certain animals are not supposed to be killed or even eaten in such areas.

These animals are highly revered while some other people believe such animals are their ancestors. Killing them is believed to attract a fine or penalty as reparation towards the great evil committed against the ancestors who are also believed to be the protectors of the land.For example in some places in Anambra State of Nigeria, pythons are not killed and accidental killing of such will call for burial rites similar to that of human as a form of appeasing the gods.

TOTEMS

A totem is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe.

While the term "totem" is belief in tutelary spirits and deities is common to a number of cultures worldwide, such as Africa, Arabia, Asia, Australia, Europe, and the Arctic. However, the traditional people of those cultures have words for their guardian spirits in their own languages, and do not call these spirits or symbols, "totems.

Anthropologically Totemism is a belief associated with animistic religions. The totem is usually an animal or other natural figure that spiritually represents a group of related people such as a clan.

MAJOR TRIBES OF EAST AFRICA AND THEIR CUSTOMS

1.CHAGGA

Tanzania is where the Wildebeest Migration of East Africa took place. But more than just the annual migration of the zebras and their predators, there are many things to look forward to in this nation, especially when it comes to culture. In Tanzania, the Chagga tribe is the one most popular. They are the group of people living in the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru. Their colorful tradition, which consists of rich folklore and flamboyant celebrations, could have something to do with their early embrace of Christianity.

2. MAASAI

The Maasis live in Kenya, which is one of the many African nations that celebrate a handful of colorful festivities. The Kenyan’s rich culture starts with the International Camel Derby & Festival, then goes into the Nairobi International Book Fair, the Mombasa Carnival, and The Schweppes East African Concours d’ Elegance. All of these are what makes Kenya a good place for an adventure. As for the Maasai tribe, they are the people who wear Shukas and beautiful beaded jewelry. But then again, they’re also known as the meat eaters who don’t mind drinking raw animal’s blood.

3. LUO

The Luo (also called Joluo, Jonagi/ Onagi singular Jaluo, Jaonagi or Joramogi/ Nyikwaramogi meaning Ramogi's heirs) are an ethnic group in western Kenya, northern Uganda, and in Mara Region in northern Tanzania. They are part of a larger group of ethno-linguistically related Luo peoples who inhabit an area ranging from Southern Sudan (South Sudan), South-Western Ethiopia, Northern and Eastern Uganda, South-Western Kenya and North-Eastern Tanzania.The main Luo livelihoods are fishing, farming and pastoral herding. Outside Luoland, the Luo comprise a significant fraction of East Africa's intellectual and skilled labour force in various professions. Others members work in eastern Africa as tenant fishermen, small scale farmers, and urban workers.

4.BUGANDA

The Ganda people, or Baganda (endonym: Baganda; singular Muganda), are a Bantu ethnic group native to Buganda, a subnationalkingdom within Uganda. Traditionally composed of 52 tribes (although since a 1993 survey, only 46 are officially recognised), the Baganda are the largest ethnic group in Uganda, comprising 16.9 percent of the population.

Sometimes described as "The King's Men" because of the importance of the king, or Kabaka, in their society, the Ganda number an estimated 5.6 million in Uganda. In addition, there is a significant diaspora abroad, with organised communities in Canada, South Africa, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Traditionally, they speak Luganda.Ganda social organization emphasized descent through males. Four or five generations of descendants of one man, related through male forebears, constituted a patrilineage. A group of related lineages constituted a clan. Clan leaders could summon a council of lineage heads, and council decisions affected all lineages within the clan. Many of these decisions regulated marriage, which had always been between two different lineages, forming important social and political alliances for the men of both lineages. Lineage and clan leaders also helped maintain efficient land use practices, and they inspired pride in the group through ceremonies and remembrances of ancestors.

5. HUTU

The Hutu also known as the Abahutu, are a population inhabiting the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi, and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where they form one of the principal population divisions alongside the Tutsi and the Twa.

Hutus speak Rwanda-Rundi as their native tongue, which is a member of the Bantu subgroup of the Niger–Congo language family. Rwanda-Rundi is subdivided into the Kinyarwanda and Kirundi dialects, which have been standardized as official languages of Rwanda and Burundi respectively. It is also spoken as a mother tongue by the Tutsi and Twa.

Additionally, many Hutu speak French, the other official language of Rwanda and Burundi, as a lingua franca.

6.TUTSI

The Tutsi (Rwanda-Rundi or Abatutsi, are a population inhabiting the African Great Lakes region. Historically, they were often referred to as the Watutsi, Watusi, Wahuma or the Wahima. The Tutsi form a subgroup of the Banyarwanda and the Barundi peoples, who reside primarily in Rwanda and Burundi, but with significant populations also found in Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania. They speak Rwanda-Rundi, a group of Bantu languages.

The Tutsi are the second largest population division among the three largest groups in Rwanda and Burundi; the other two being the Hutu (largest) and the Twa (smallest). Small numbers of Hema, Kiga and Furiiru people also live near the Tutsi in Rwanda. The Northern Tutsi who reside in Rwanda are called Ruguru (Banyaruguru), while southern Tutsi that live in Burundi are known as Hima, and the Tutsi that inhabit the Kivu plateau in the Congo go by Banyamulenge.

7. THE NUER

The Nuer people are a Nilotic ethnic group primarily inhabiting the Nile Valley. They are concentrated in South Sudan, with some representatives also found in southwestern Ethiopia. They speak the Nuer language, which belongs to the Nilo-Saharan family.

Cattle have historically been of the highest symbolic, religious and economic value among the Nuer. Cattle are particularly important in their role as bride wealth, where they are given by a husband's lineage to his wife's lineage. It is this exchange of cattle which ensures that the children will be considered to belong to the husband's lineage and to his line of descent. The classical Nuer institution of ghost marriage, in which a man can "father" children after his death, is based on this ability of cattle exchanges to define relations of kinship and descent. In their turn, cattle given over to the wife's patrilineage enable the male children of that patrilineage to marry, and thereby ensure the continuity of her patrilineage. A barren woman can even take a wife of her own, whose children (obviously biologically fathered by men from outside unions) then become members of her patrilieage, and she is legally and culturally their father, allowing her to participate in reproduction in a metaphorical sense.

8. THE DINKA

The Dinka people are an ethnic group inhabiting the Bahr el Ghazal region of the Nile basin, Jonglei and parts of southern Kordufan and Upper Nile regions. The Dinkas are mainly agripastoral people, relying on cattle herding at riverside camps in the dry season and growing millet and other varieties of grains (rap) in fixed settlements during the rainy season. They number around 4.5 million people according to the 2008 Sudan census, constituting about 18% of the population of the entire country, and the largest ethnic tribe in South Sudan. Dinka, or as they refer to themselves, Muonyjang (singular) and jieng (plural), one of the branches of the River Lake Nilotes (mainly sedentary agripastoral peoples of the Nile Valley and African Great Lakes region who speak Nilotic languages, including the Nuer and Luo). Dinka are sometimes noted for their height. With the Tutsi of Rwanda, they are believed to be the tallest people in Africa. However, it seems the stature of today's Dinka males is lower, possibly as a consequence of undernutrition and conflicts. An anthropometric survey of Dinka men, war refugees in Ethiopia, published in 1995 found a mean height of 176.4 cm (5 ft 9.4 in). Other studies of comparative historical height data and nutrition place the Dinka as the tallest people in the world.

The Dinkas' pastoral lifestyle is also reflected in their religious beliefs and practices. Since the arrival of Abrahamic religions most revere one God, Nhialic, who speaks through spirits that take temporary possession of individuals in order to speak through them. The sacrificing of oxen by the "masters of the fishing spear" is a central component of Dinka religious practice. Age is an important factor in Dinka culture, with young men being inducted into adulthood through an initiation ordeal which includes marking the forehead with a sharp object. Also during this ceremony they acquire a second cow-colour name. The Dinka believe they derive religious power from nature and the world around them, rather than from a religious tome.

AFRICAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE

INDIVIDUAL

Individual always live according to the standard of particular family where they belongs. Individual are obliged to obey the authority of the family so as to be considered as the real member of the family. For example he or she must respect parents of that particular family especially in decision making and they are also encouraged to contribute for the wellbeing of the family by working hard.

FAMILY,

The family is a universal group throughout Africa, with many different forms and functions. Everywhere the basic family unit is the elementary or nuclear family, a small domestic group made up of a husband, his wife, and their children; frequently, attached kin are included as well. This group is formed by a marriage and ends either with the death of one of the spouses or with divorce. Where polygyny is permitted, a husband and his wives form a compound family. Elementary and compound families in most parts of the continent traditionally have also been units of wider and longer-lasting families, known as joint or extended families. In these families, there are typically two or more generations, either a group of brothers and sons and their wives and children (a patrilineal joint family) or, in some places, a group of sisters and their husbands and children (a matrilineal joint family). This kind of family is long-lasting, and indeed self-perpetuating; a death makes no difference to its overall structure, and thus it can last over several generations, with a membership of up to a hundred people and more. As a general rule, joint and extended families are found in rural rather than in urban settlements, the latter more usually being occupied by many elementary families, each in isolation from the others. But here are many exceptions (e.g., the Yoruba of the traditional southern Nigerian cities, who maintain extended families even today).

CLAND,

A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clan members may be organized around a founding member or apical ancestor. The kinship-based bonds may be symbolical, whereby the clan shares a "stipulated" common ancestor that is a symbol of the clan's unity. When this "ancestor" is non-human, it is referred to as a totem, which is frequently an animal.

Clans are typically segmented into constituent groups, with each group recognizing a founding ancestor more recent than the clan founder; these are known in the literature as lineages, one of the criteria for a lineage being that its members—patrilineal or matrilineal can trace actual kinship links between themselves. Lineages may themselves be segmented into smaller units, the smallest typically being the group around which a domestic family is established. Such a family (if patrilineal) includes the husband and his children, all members of the small lineage, and his wife, who by the rule of exogamy must come from another clan.

Other forms of descent are recognized, the most common of which is cognatic descent, whereby local kin groups are composed of members who recognize their common descent through both men and women. A few societies recognize both patrilineal and matrilineal descent simultaneously. Some societies in Africa do not formally recognize these forms of descent at all, but they are not typical and usually consist of long-settled urban dwellers.

Almost every African society has some form of descent group, however transitory, as the basis of its social organization. The recognition of these variations of ancestral descent is an effective way of constructing local groups that can last for several—often for many—generations and in which the close-knit ties of kinship provide powerful links through the notion of common "blood." By claiming exclusive ancestry, such a group can claim exclusive rights to clan and lineage property. Marriages between their members, by the rule of exogamy, cement them into larger communities and societies, each possessing its own sense of common ethnic and cultural "belonging." Although these traditional forms of family and kinship are lessening in importance, with the continuing need for urban and industrialized labor and the consequent increase in labor migration, the strength of kin groups remains great. They are well suited to traditional forms of production and exchange where these are found (which is still the case among the majority of African peoples), and they provide a sense of personal identity and security that is of high emotive value.

TRIBE

a social division in a traditional society consisting of families or communities linked by social, economic, religious, or blood ties, with a common culture and dialect, typically having a recogniA tribe is viewed, developmentally or historically, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside, states. A tribe is a group of distinct people, dependent on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not integrated into the national society. It is perhaps the term most readily understood and used by the general public. Stephen Corry, director of Survival International, the world's only organisation dedicated to indigenous rights, has defined tribal people as "those which have followed ways of life for many generations that are largely self-sufficient, and are clearly different from the mainstream and dominant society". This definition, however, would not apply in countries in the Middle East such as Iraq, where the entire population is a member of one tribe or another and therefore tribalism itself is dominant and mainstream.zed leader.

NATION

Nation (from Latin: natio, "people, tribe, kin, genus, class, flock") is a social concept with no uncontroversial definition,but that is most commonly used to designate larger groups or collectives of people with common characteristics attributed to them including language, traditions, customs (mores), habits (habitus), and ethnicity. A nation, by comparison, is more impersonal, abstract, and overtly political than an ethnic group. It is a cultural-political community that has become conscious of its autonomy, unity, and particular interests. For example of African Nations are Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda ,Burundi, Ghana,Lybia,etc.

MARRIAGE SYSTEM AND CUSTOM IN AFRICA

Marriage is sacred in Africa and beyond, because it solidifies relationship that enrich communities and nations by bring forth new life and new hope. African cultures celebrate the coming of the rains, the first harvest and the birth of a child. Marriage is that cultural process which ushers in new life. It is a cherished and most celebrated rite of passage since the dawn of African civilization. But marriage is not a human right: Human rights don’t need licenses or certificates. Marriage is instead a privilege afforded by communities, between man and woman for those who meet the criteria.

African marriage systems do share several characteristics. They almost always involve the transfer of dowry cash, goods, or services from the groom or his family to the bride's family. This exchange is both real and symbolic, as it marks the woman's passage from one social group to the other. Thus, for Africans, marriage is a matter between families as much as between the bride and groom, and many families arrange the marriages of their members. Marriage takes many forms in Africa. Throughout the continent, the diversity of systems reflects the traditions, religions, and economic circumstances of a wide variety of distinct cultures.

Marriage is the only known incubator for the raising of balanced socially functional children. It is a civilized union of man and woman. The ideal set up for a child to be raised in to full functionality in the African context as a contributor to civilization. It is the institutionalization of complementary relationship between male and female energies, enshrining in the child sentiments and values from both sexes. This is the formula which is secured with marriage. Extended family systems sits in this equation by sharing responsibilities and enshrining balance. Even if a woman is unable to contribute by having her own biological children her role as a mother is expressed in a communal set up. And hence why the Pan-African proverb of it takes a village to raise a child. Parenting is communal, and the harmony of male and female energies are critical in enshrining balanced humans.

BRIDE WEALTH

In all the communities the bride plays a very special role and is treated with respect because she is a link between the unborn and the ancestors. A bride might eventually bear a very powerful child. Women are mothers of civilization which earns them a high status in society, thus protecting women and children is a biological human instinct.

And if a people cannot get the man and the woman into equitable agreement and commitment-- then what about the nation, and the continent? In a good marriage means partners compliments each other, and makes both parties better. Marriage is a journey through life which enhances and enriching entire communities. Marriage promotes sharing, tolerance, consideration, empathy, selflessness, and other virtues. Lack of marriage is the death of a nation and a people. Communities that fail to recognize marriage become decadent and self-destructive with a range of social, economic and health issues.

AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS

The traditional beliefs and practices of African people include various traditional religions. Generally, these traditions are oral rather than scriptural, include belief in a supreme creator, belief in spirits, veneration of ancestors, use of magic, and traditional medicine.

CONCEPT OF GOD IN AFRICA

African peoples do not consider God to be a man, but in order to express certain concepts, they employ languages and images about God as an aid to their conceptualization of him whom they have not seen and about whom they confess to know little or nothing. God is experienced as an all-pervading reality. He is the constant participant in the affairs of human beings. Scholars who study religion in Africa tell us that all African societies have a belief in God.

BELIEF IN GOD.

With this belief based on God’s revelation of Himself to the Africans, God became real, and every African community has a local name for God. God has always been real and never an abstract concept to the African. The names which various African communities give to God project their best expression of Him in their religious experiences. These names are descriptive in nature because they portray the character as well as the attributes of God as understood by the people.

For instance, in the eastern part of Nigeria, God is known as either Chukwu or Chineke, which means “the big God” or “the God who creates,” respectively. The Akan people of Ghana call Him Onyame to confi rm their belief in this Supreme Being. The Mendes of Sierra Leone call Him Ngewo, which means “Creator of the universe” as well as “Father,”while the Kikuya people of Kenya call Him Murungu, which means “Creator of all things.” And Acholi People of Uganda call Him “Jok Mamalo” Means Spirit from Above. God in the African worldview is the Controller, Protector, and Provider for the whole universe.

CREATION MYTH IN AFRICA

YORUBA

According to Yoruba (YOUR-a-bah) mythology, the first Yoruba kings were the offspring of the creator, Oduduwa (oh-doo-DOO-wah). A Yoruba king's crown identifies the status of its wearer and gives the king the power to interact with the spirit world in order to benefit his people. A veil, a large face, and a group of birds are commonly appear on a Yoruba king's crown. Long, long ago, Olorun (OH-low-run), the sky god, lowered a great chain from the heavens to the ancient waters. Down this chain climbed Oduduwa, Olorun's son. Oduduwa brought with him a handful of dirt, a special five-toed chicken, and a palm nut. He threw the dirt upon the ancient waters and set the chicken on the dirt. The chicken busily scratched and scattered the dirt until it formed the first dry earth. In the center of this new world, Oduduwa created the magnificent Ife (EE-fay) kingdom. He planted the palm nut, which grew into a proud tree with 16 branches, symbolizing the 16 sons and grandsons of Oduduwa.Oduduwa was the first ruler of the kingdom and the father of all Yoruba. Over time he crowned his 16 sons and grandsons and sent them off to establish their own great Yoruba kingdoms. As descendants of the sky god, these first Yoruba rulers and their direct descendants were divine kings. Only they could wear special veiled crowns that symbolized their sacred power.

BOSHONGO [BANTU TRIBE]

In the beginning there was only darkness, water, and the great god Bumba. One day Bumba, in pain from a stomach ache, vomited up the sun. The sun dried up some of the water, leaving land. Still in pain, Bumba vomited up the moon, the stars, and then some animals: the leopard, the crocodile, the turtle, and, finally, some men, one of whom, Yoko Lima was white like Bumba.

DOGON:

At the beginning of time, Amma (a supreme god who lived in the celestial regions and was the origin of all creation) created the Earth and immediately joined with it. But the Earth's clitoris opposed the male penis. Amma destroyed it, circumcising his wife, and they had a child, Ogo, and the twins, the Nommo. Ogo had no partner and was barren, so he introduced disorder into the world by committing incest with his mother, Earth. The first menstrual blood came from this union, as well as Yeban and Andumbulu, the spirits of the underworld.

Amma created the stars by throwing pellets of earth into space. He created the sun and moon by modelling two white earthenware bowls, one encircled with red copper, the other with white copper. Black people were born under the sun and white people under the moon. (The latter paragraph is quoted in L.V. Thomas, Les Religions,deL'Afriquenoire,Paris,1969)

EFIK[Central Nigeria]

The creator, Abassi, created two humans and then decided to not allow them to live on earth. His wife, Atai, persuaded him to let them do so. In order to control the humans, Abassi insisted that they eat all their meals with him, thereby keeping them from growing or hunting food. He also forbade them to procreate. Soon, though, the woman began growing food in the earth, and they stopped showing up to eat with Abassi. Then the man joined his wife in the fields, and before long there were children also. Abassi blamed his wife for the way things had turned out, but she told him she would handle it. She sent to earth death and discord-to,keep,the,people-in,their-place.

ETHIOPIA:

Wak was the creator god who lived in the clouds. He kept the vault of the heavens at a distance from the earth and covered it with stars. He was a benefactor and did not punish. When the earth was flat Wak asked man to make his own coffin, and when man did this Wak shut him up in it and pushed it into the ground. For seven years he made fire rain down and the mountains were formed. Then Wak unearthed the coffin and man sprang forth, alive. Man tired of living alone, so Wak took some of his blood, and after four days, the blood became a woman whom the man married. They had 30 children, but the man was ashamed of having so many so he hid 15 of them. Wak then made those hidden children into animals-and-demons.

FANS(BANTU):

In the beginning there was nothing but Nzame. This god is really three: Nzame, Mebere, and Nkwa. It was the Nzame part of the god that created the universe and the earth, and brought life to it. Whle the three parts of Nzame were admiring this creation, it was decided to create a ruler for the earth. So was created the elephant, the leopard, and the monkey, but it was decided that something better had to be created. Between the three of them they made a new creature in their image, and called him Fam (power), and told him to rule the earth. Before long, Fam grew arrogant, he mistreated the animals and stopped worshipping Nzame. Nzame, angered, brought forth thunder and lightning and destroyed everything that was, except Fam, who had been promised immortality. Nzame, in his three aspects, decided to renew the earth and try again. He applied a new layer of earth to the planet, and a tree grew upon it. The tree dropped seeds which grew into more trees. Leaves that dropped from them into the water became fish, those that dropped on land became animals. The old parched earth still lies below this new one, and if one digs deep enough it can be found in the form of coal. Nzame made a new man, one who would know death, and called him Sekume. Sekume fashioned a woman, Mbongwe, from a tree. These people were made with both Gnoul (body) and Nissim (soul). Nissim gives life to Gnoul. When Gnoul dies, Nissim lives on. They produced many children and prospered.

WAHUNGWE(ZIMBABWE):

Maori created the first man, Mwuetsi, who became the moon. Maori gave him a ngona horn filled with ngona oil and told him he would live at the bottom of the waters. Mwuetsi objected and said he wished to live on the land. Maori reluctantly agreed, but said Mwuetsi would give up immortality if he did. After a while Mwuetsi complained of loneliness, so Maori sent him a woman, Massassi (the morning star), to keep him company for two years. Each night they slept on opposite sides of a campfire, until one night Mwuetsi jumped over the flame and touched Massassi with a finger he had moistened with the ngona oil. In the moning Massassi was huge, and soon gave birth to plants and trees until the whole earth was covered by them. At the end of two years Maori took Massassi away. Mwuetsi wept for eight years, at which time Maori sent him another woman, Morongo (the evening star), saying that she could stay for two years. On the first night Mwuetsi touched her with his oiled finger, but she said she was different than Massassi, and that they would have to oil their loins and have intercourse. This they did, this night, and every night thereafter. Every morning Morongo gave birth to the animals of creation. Then she gave birth to human boys and girls, who became full-grown by that very same evening. Maori voiced his disleasure with a fierce storm, and told Mwuetsi he was hastening his death with all this procreation. Morongo, ever the temptress, instructed Mwuetsi to build a door to their habitat so that Maori could not see what they were doing. He did this, and again they slept together. Now in the morning Morongo gave birth to violent animals; snakes, scorpions, lions, etc. One night Morongo told Mwuetsi to have intercourse with his daughters, which he did, thereby fathering the human race.

YORUBA:

In the beginning was only the sky above, water and marshland below. The chief god Olorun ruled the sky, and the goddess Olokun ruled what was below. Obatala, another god, reflected upon this situation, then went to Olorun for permission to create dry land for all kinds of living creatures to inhabit. He was given permission, so he sought advice from Orunmila, oldest son of Olorun and the god of prophecy. He was told he would need a gold chain long enough to reach below, a snail's shell filled with sand, a white hen, a black cat, and a palm nut, all of which he was to carry in a bag. All the gods contributed what gold they had, and Orunmila supplied the articles for the bag. When all was ready, Obatala hung the chain from a corner of the sky, placed the bag over his shoulder, and started the downward climb. When he reached the end of the chain he saw he still had some distance to go. From above he heard Orunmila instruct him to pour the sand from the snail's shell, and to immediately release the white hen. He did as he was told, whereupon the hen landing on the sand began scratching and scattering it about. Wherever the sand landed it formed dry land, the bigger piles becoming hills and the smaller piles valleys. Obatala jumped to a hill and named the place Ife. The dry land now extended as far as he could see. He dug a hole, planted the palm nut, and saw it grow to maturity in a flash. The mature palm tree dropped more palm nuts on the ground, each of which grew immediately to maturity and repeated the process. Obatala settled down with the cat for company. Many months passed, and he grew bored with his routine. He decided to create beings like himself to keep him company. He dug into the sand and soon found clay with which to mold figures like himself and started on his task, but he soon grew tired and decided to take a break. He made wine from a nearby palm tree, and drank bowl after bowl. Not realizing he was drunk, Obatala returned to his task of fashioning the new beings; because of his condition he fashioned many imperfect figures. Without realizing this, he called out to Olorun to breathe life into his creatures. The next day he realized what he had done and swore never to drink again, and to take care of those who were deformed, thus becoming Protector of the Deformed. The new people built huts as Obatala had done and soon Ife prospered and became a city. All the other gods were happy with what Obatala had done, and visited the land often, except for Olokun, the ruler of all below the sky.

ZIMBABWE:

Modimo was the creator. He distributed good things, appeared in the east and belonged to the element water. At the same time he was a destroyer, a terrifying creature responsible for drought, hail, cyclones and earthquakes. When these things happened he appeared in the west and was part of the element fire. Modimo was also sky and light, earth and root. He was unique and singular. He had no ancestors, no past or future. He pervaded the whole of creation. His name was taboo and could be spoken only by priests and seers.

ZULU:

The Ancient One, known as Unkulunkulu, is the Zulu creator. He came from the reeds (uthlanga, means source) and from them he brought forth the people and the cattle. He created everything that is: mountains,streams, snakes, etc. He taught the Zulu how to hunt, how to make fire, and how to grow food. He is considered to be the First Man and is in everything that he created.

FROM THE SHILLLUK, [a Nilotic people]

Turning now to Africa, we find the legend of the creation of mankind out of clay among the Shilluks of the White Nile, who ingeniously explain the different complexions of the various races by the different coloured clay out of which they were fashioned. They say that the creator Juok moulded all men of earth, and that while he was engaged in the work of creation he wandered about the world. In the land of the whites he found a pure white earth or sand, and out of it he shaped white men. Then he came to the land of Egypt and out of the mud of the Nile he made red or brown men. Lastly, he came to the land of the Shilluks, and finding there black earth he created black men out of it. The way in which he modeled men was this. He took a lump of earth and said to himself, 'I will make man, but he must be able to walk and run and go out into the fields, so I will give him two long legs, like the flamingo.' Having done so, he thought again, 'The man must be able to cultivate his millet, so I will give him two arms, one to hold the hoe, and the other to tear up the weeds.' So he gave him two arms. Then he thought again, 'The man must be able to see his millet, so I will give him two eyes.' He did so accordingly. Next he thought to himself, 'The man must be able to eat his millet, so I will give him a mouth.' And a mouth he gave him accordingly. After that he thought within himself, 'The man must be able to dance and speak and sing and shout, and for these purposes he must have a tongue.' And a tongue he gave him accordingly. Lastly- the deity said to himself, 'The man must be able to hear the noise of the dance and the speech of the great men, and for that he needs two ears.' So two ears he gave him, and sent him out into the world a perfect man.'

ANCESTORS AND SPIRITS

The ancestors are neither Deity nor divinities; they are however, the dead members of the community known as “the livingdead” and are believed to exist in communion with their living loved ones. The ancestors are regarded as heads of their respective families or communities, with death as just a continuation of ancestors and their services, but now in the afterlife. Those qualifi ed to become ancestors must have lived to ripe old ages, lived godly lives, and must have had children. Indeed, where the ancestors live permanently is the “paradise” or “heaven,” which the average African longs for when he or she dies.

Ancestor worship

Ancestor worship and belief is an extension of a belief in and respect for elders. Followers of traditional African religion believe that ancestors maintain a spiritual connection with their living relatives.

BELIEF IN SPIRITS.

This concept is anthropomorphically conceived, since the spirits are both immaterial and incorporeal beings. These spirits live in rocks, mountains, rivers, trees, bushes, waterways, among other places. Another important dimension associated with this belief is the “born-to-die” idea, which is closely connected with reincarnation. This aspect of the belief claims wandering spirits specialize in finding their way into the wombs of pregnant women in order to be born and later to die. In a similar manner, it is believed in many parts of Africa that the activities of witches, who operate as mystic living creatures such as birds, bats, rats, and other living things, should not be ignored. The objectives of the witches are to inflict harm: insanity, disease, miscarriages, deformities, or any other unexplainable problem

Most ancestral spirits are generally good and kind. The only negative actions taken by ancestral spirits is to cause minor illnesses to warn people that they have gotten onto the wrong path. To please these unhappy ancestors, usually offerings of beer and meat are made.

In African mythology, Jok is the concept of the divine; it can be good or evil, one or many. Unlike Europeans, who believe spiritual beings must be separated, African mythology believes Jok is the unified spirit of all supernatural beings: God and the spirits, the gods, the holy ghost and beings from the otherworld.

African Religion believes in the existence of good and evil spirits and rituals play a very important part in African culture. Bad spirits are believed to cause misfortune and illness and many societies have spiritual professionals who communicate with ancestral spirits to protect against evil. Mediums enter into trance-like states, allowing a spirit to possess their body and use them to communicate or prophesy.

African religious practitioners undergo intense training and there are different roles of spiritual professionals including priests, rainmakers and healers, also known as diviners or herbalists.

Some African Religions even distinguish more than one spiritual essence residing within a person. In Nigeria, the Yoruba people believe that a person has at least three spiritual beings. Emi, is a vital force that keeps man alive.

It resides in the heart and lungs and is fed by the wind. Ojiji is a shadow that follows its owner and awaits his return in heaven when he dies. The third being is Eleda, or spirit, which must be fed by sacrifices. These spiritual beings flee the body at the time of death and all await his return in heaven.

The Yoruba people also believe that a man's success or failure in life depends on the choices he made in heaven before his birth. Ori is the Yoruba god in heaven who supervises people's choices.

Even the gods themselves depend on Ori to direct their personal lives. Gods and men alike consult their sacred divination palm nuts daily in order to receive direction from Ori.

HEALERS

Traditional African medicine is a holistic discipline involving indigenous herbalism and African spirituality, typically involving diviners, midwives, and herbalists. Practitioners of traditional African medicine claim to be able to cure various and diverse conditions such as cancers, psychiatric disorders, high blood pressure, cholera, most venereal diseases, epilepsy, asthma, eczema, fever, anxiety, depression, benign prostatic hyperplasia, urinary tract infections, gout, and healing of wounds and burns and even Ebola.

Diagnosis is reached through spiritual means and a treatment is prescribed, usually consisting of a herbal remedy that is considered to have not only healing abilities but also symbolic and spiritual significance. Traditional African medicine, with its belief that illness is not derived from chance occurrences, but through spiritual or social imbalance, differs greatly from modern scientific medicine, which is technically and analytically based. In the 21st century, modern pharmaceuticals and medical procedures remain inaccessible to large numbers of African people due to their relatively high cost and concentration of health facilities in urban centres.

Before the establishment of science-based medicine, traditional medicine was the dominant medical system for millions of people in Africa but the arrival of the Europeans was a noticeable turning point in the history of this ancient tradition and culture. Herbal medicines in Africa are generally not adequately researched, and are weakly regulated.There is a lack of the detailed documentation of the tradition.

CONCEPT OF DEATH AND IMMORTALITY

Death is certain in human existence, though we do battle with its inevitability. Despite its ubiquity, it is a phenomenon conceived differently, depending on cultural, ideological, or idiosyncratic orientation. These differences are apparent because of my multicultural exposure of death in both the African context, the biblical Middle East, and the modern American view of death and dying.

Theologically, death is defined as the separation of soul and body. But as Professor Philip Keane pointed out in a lecture, no one has seen the soul depart the body. This definition, according to German theologian Karl Rahner, fails to indicate “the specifically human element of human death.” Philosophically, death is defined as the cessation of the integrated functioning of the human organism. This disintegration, of course, is like “the separation of body and soul” definition not an observable definition.

An African person prefers a slow and lingering death not through the aid of a machine but a natural prolongation of the dying process so that he or she could make their peace, say farewell to friends and relatives, and give final instructions to immediate relatives.

LIFE AND ITS PURPOSE

Man is in the centre of African universe and everything seems to be related to him. Religion has then a functional value – it is to help people to acquire earthly goods and to maintain social order. Everything around man that enhances his life force is desirable and everything that destroys it or diminishes is to be avoided. “The sole purpose of existence is to seek life, to see to it that human life continues and grows to its full capacity” (Magesa, 1997, p. 55).

Zuesse emphasizes the role of relationship as a way of affirming the flow of life and see the goal of life in maintaining and joining “that cosmic web that holds and sustains all things and beings, to be a part of the integral mutuality of things” (Zuesse, 1991, p. 173).

DEATH AND AFTER LIFE

The origin of death is described in many African myths. In most of them death is conceived as something that came as a result of some mistake. Death was not supposed to be a part of human life. The blame for it is laid on some animal, on people or on some spirits (Mbiti, 1975, pp. 116-117, Zahan, 1979, pp. 36-43). In general death is not considered as a natural event but tends to be seen as ‘caused’ by some external forces such as witches, spirits or curse (Mbiti, 1975, p. 118, Gehman, 1989, p. 54).

Kirwen (2008, p. 208) describes death as “an inevitable event in the personal history of every living person…” Though inevitable, death does not terminate human existence, but is a moment of passage to the afterlife.

After death human person continues to live on as a spirit. The network of relationships that characterizes human existence is not interrupted. Gehman (1989, p. 54) summarizes it saying that “death is a necessary door through which the living pass in order to take up the inevitable role as the living dead. Death is transition to the final destiny of all men and women”. Mbiti affirms that “life goes on beyond the grave” (1975, p. 119). Birago Diop, quoted in Taylor (2001, p. 107) endorses such a view claiming that “Those who are dead are never gone: they are in the thickening shadow… they are in the wood that groans, they are in the fire that is dying… they are in the forest, they are in the house, the dead are not dead”.

Death is a moment when the spirit, often associated with breathing, separates from the body and goes into hereafter. Some understand the hereafter as a distant place. The deceased then, equipped with food and weapons, has a journey to make before he arrives to the hereafter. For others, it is ‘here’, though it is invisible to human eye (Mbiti, 1969, pp.162-165).

The dead person becomes a living dead. A living dead is still considered as a member of the family. He is in the state of personal immortality (Mbiti, 1969, p.163). It can help the family and the community in times of trouble and it can also cause trouble if certain rituals have not been performed properly or if there are some violations of community laws. It remains in such a status for about four to five generation during which he can partially be reincarnated in a new born child.

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON AFRICA TODAY

Much of Africa's cultural activity centers on the family and the ethnic group. Art, music, and oral literature serve to reinforce existing religious and social patterns. The Westernized minority, influenced by European culture and Christianity, first rejected African traditional culture, but with the rise of African nationalism, a cultural revival occurred. The governments of most African nations foster national dance and music groups, museums, and to a lesser degree, artists and writers.

Each group of people have customs that are unique to them. However, in all ethnic groups throughout Africa, the family unit is of the utmost importance and it is reflected in the customs of each tribe.

One traditional custom in African culture is that of bride wealth (known as “Lim Keny” in Acholi Culture In Nothern Uganda) where the groom pays the father of the bride in order to compensate for the ‘loss’ of the man’s daughter.

Traditionally, Lim Keny (bride wealth) was paid in cattle, a valued commodity in many African cultures, but today many modern couples pay Lim Keny or bride wealth in cash.

Bride wealth is intended to bring together two families, fostering mutual respect. It also indicates that the groom is financially capable of supporting his wife. The negotiations of Lim Keny /bride wealth can take up to two days or more.[1]

THE END

[1] Prepared By: Br Churchill Ojok Chris.

P.O BOX 30589-00100,Nairobi-Kenya EMAIL: churchilljk2@gmail.com TEL: +254701470353