Tolbert, Kassidy

The Indigenous Two-Spirited

European settlers not only stole the homes of indigenous people but also their bodies. Adrienne Keene, in the podcast “All My Relations,” defines settler colonialism as destroying someone else’s land and then inhabiting it; however, this definition does not often refer to the destruction and possession of one’s body. As explained in the essay “Stolen From Our Bodies,” by Qwo-Li Driskill, indigenous tribes once held pride in their sovereign erotic lives and identities before the result of colonization. As this shows, indigenous people were stolen from their bodies through sexual assault and the destruction of their culture’s sexuality by European colonists.

"Bay Area American Indian Two Spirits, San Francisco Pride 2013" by InSapphoWeTrust

European colonization separated indigenous people from their homes by claiming their land and resources. Colonists developed their land into their own homes with an entirely new culture and system for the indigenous people to follow. The culture involved a “settler-mentality” of oppression and violence against the indigenous people who essentially became slaves to the colonists. The colonists also corrupted the indigenous people’s culture of sexuality. As explained by Driskill, sexuality in indigenous culture was viewed as “erotic sovereignty,” meaning that their understandings of power and identity were attached to their sensuality. Some indigenous people identified as “Two-Spirit” people, which does not have a direct definition in the English language. This identification can be best described as genderqueer which basically means that there are no set boundaries for gender identity or sexual orientation. The term can also vary from tribe to tribe. Following colonization, this concept was dismantled as its complexity did not match the ideas of the culture that the colonizers had established. Instead, the colonizers brought new concepts of transphobia, sexism, homophobia, and sexual assault that became part of their culture. These concepts had not been prevalent in indigenous communities before but became an outcome of colonization.

Sexual assault was another form of separating indigenous people from their bodies. It became very common for a colonizer to rape or sexually assault an indigenous woman or Two-Spirit person. In the book “Bad Indians: a tribal memoir,” author Deborah Miranda states that one in three Indian women were raped during her early years “and ninety percent of the rapists are non-Indian” (38). She adds that the statistics are likely much higher today. In particular, it became normalized for priests of the California missions to rape indigenous little girls. Sexual violence was not acceptable in the indigenous culture before the colonists invaded as the behavior goes against everything that the people believe in. It highlights the idea of dominance which was non-existent in the indigenous’ culture that focused on equality. Sexual violence, in addition to the new culture of homophobia and transphobia, caused indigenous people to become ashamed of their bodies and their sexuality, leaving them unable to embrace a significant part of their culture and lose a part of their identity. Consequently, the indigenious people “lost their bodies.”

“two spirit” - trans.zine #5" by QZAP

Indigenous people have not had the ability to combat colonization in the past; however, with more support and resources today, people have been able to take a stand and attempt to resist it. Colonization still impacts indigenous people today as their land remains inhabited by colonizers and is still being destroyed. One example of this can be seen in the documentary “Beyond Recognition” that showed protests being held at the shopping centers that were built over historic Ohlone burial grounds. With the support of fellow Ohlone and non-natives, they participated in a demonstration of resistance, but this did not erase the disrespect and destruction of the land that occurred in the first place. Although only a handful of tribes have been federally recognized, many are still fighting for the recognition that they deserve, where under this recognition, the tribes are given certain benefits. Furthermore, indigenous people are trying to withstand and reverse colonization by taking their land back. Known as the “Land Back Movement,” tribes are attempting to reclaim and protect their land from the government of the United States. This movement acknowledges that the land was taken from its indigenous inhabitants unconstitutionally; however, the government has attempted to solve the issue with settlements rather than make proper reparations by returning the land rights.

"Two Spirits" by Robin Penrose

"Mockup Art for Two Spirit Flyer." by eyewashdesign: A. Golden

Decolonization is fundamentally the process of undoing the damage of colonialism. The only solution to fix the irreversible harm caused by colonization would be to give the rightful owners all the land back. In Dr. Cutcha Risling Baldy’s lecture, she states that the only way to fix the destruction is to return the land rights back to the indigenous people to whom it originally belonged to and was stolen from. America does not rightfully own any of this land as it was taken without permission from the original inhabitants. In the conclusion of Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz’s book, she states that the “process rightfully starts by honoring the treaties the United States made with Indigenous nations, by restoring all sacred sites{...}and by payment of sufficient reparations for the reconstruction and expansion of Native nations” (235). She also adds that education is vital for reconfiguration and that people of all backgrounds will need to show their support and participation in the attempt to make a significant change.

"bay area american indian two spirits" by nerdcoregirl

Two-Spirit people and their supporters are attempting to bring back the love and acceptance that their culture once had for their identity and erotic-ness. While the years of sexual violence and oppression cannot be erased, America must now take the time to learn about and respect the culture of the indigenous people. Furthermore, in order to undo the colonization of the Americas, vast reparations must be paid and the current reservation boundaries must be strictly enforced and protected. In the words of Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, “While living persons are not responsible for what their ancestors did, they are responsible for the society they live in, which is a product of that past” (235). It is the nation’s duty to reverse the damage and pain that America has inflicted on the indigenous people.

Land Acknowledgement

"File:Indigenous Peoples' Day SF 20181008-5101.jpg" by Pax Ahimsa Gethen

Underneath the pavement of the San Francisco Bay region, there is the soil where the Muwekma Ohlone once walked and called the land their home. This terrain was solely their home until colonization and the establishment of the three missions of Dolores, Santa Clara, and San Jose. We need to respect the nature of the land that has brought the tribe abundance and allowed the people to live in harmony. The land contains geographic regions of mythical and ritual importance to the Ohlone tribe. There is an abundance of evidence of the culture’s origination including traces of the tribe’s history found in rock-painted art.

As citizens of the Bay Area, we respect and acknowledge the deep history of the land that belongs to the Ohlone Tribe. We commit to expanding our knowledge of the tribe’s culture as it is the original foundation of the land. We recognize that we have room to grow and although we cannot erase the past, we can continue to educate ourselves and appreciate the culture that established this land that we now share. We support the preservation of the Muwekma Ohlone’s land, community, and heritage.

Works Cited

Driskill, Qwo-Li. “Stolen From Our Bodies: First Nations Two-Spirits/Queers and the Journey to a Sovereign Erotic.” Project Muse, University of Nebraska Press, 2004, file:///Users/kassidytolbert/Downloads/Diskoll%20-%20Stolen%20From%20Our%20Bodies.pdf

“#LandBack Is Climate Justice • Lakota People's Law Project.” Lakota People's Law Project, www.lakotalaw.org/news/2020-08-14/land-back-climate-justice.

Bad Indians: a Tribal Memoir, by Deborah Miranda, Heyday, 2013, p. 38.

An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States, by Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, Beacon Press, 2015, p. 235.

Keene, Adrienne, and Matika Wilbur. “Ep #1: All My Relations & Indigenous Feminism.” All My Relations, 2019, www.allmyrelationspodcast.com/podcast/episode/32b0bd95/ep-1-all-my-relations-and-indigenous-feminism.

“Beyond Recognition.” Natural Heroes TV, naturalheroes.org/videos/beyond-recognition/.

Dr. Cutcha Risling Baldy. “‘Resilient Histories for Resilient Futures: CA Indian History & Community Empowerment.’” Youtube, Two Feathers NAFS, 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=andi7-CKN7U.

Muwekma Ohlone Tribe, Muwekma Ohlone Tribe San Jose, CA Tribal History, www.muwekma.org/tribalhistory.html.

Jones, Doug. “Ritual and Religion in the Ohlone Cultural Area of Central California.” San Jose State University SJSU ScholarWorks, 2015, scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=8189&context=etd_theses.

Page updated

Report abuse