Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 1: Introduction to Earth Science
astronomer a scientist who studies various stars, galaxies, and planets of the universe
astronomy the study of the universe beyond the earth
geologist a scientist who studies topics related to the structure and composition of
the earth
geology the study of the structure of the earth, and the physical forces that
continuously impact the structure of the earth itself
hydrosphere the portion of the earth covered by water
meteorologist a scientist who studies the changes in atmospheric conditions that
produce different weather and climate patterns
meteorology the study of the earth's atmosphere and the processes that produce
weather and climate conditions
oceanographer a scientist who studies the oceans of the earth using the scientific
disciplines of biology, chemistry, physics, and geology
oceanography the study of the earth's oceans
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 2: Scientific Method
science a collective human effort to comprehend, or better understand, the history
of the natural world and how it works, through physical evidence collected via observations
scientific hypothesis a proposed explanation for a narrow set of phenomena
scientific law a description of an observed phenomenon that holds true every time it’s
tested under a given set of conditions
scientific theory a scientific explanation formulated based on known facts and repeated
testing
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 3: Lab Safety
There are no definitions for this assignment.
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 4: Competing Perspectives
big bang theory suggests the origin of the universe started with an explosion and
expansion of a very hot, dense, compact fireball
cosmological principle the universe looks the same at any location, but can change over
time
cosmologist scientist who studies the origin and structure of the universe
cosmology the study of the origin and structure of the universe
galaxy a large-scale collection of stars, dust, and gas held together by
gravity
general relativity theory Albert Einstein's theory that space and time are relative to matter
inflation theory theory that upholds the big bang theory, but suggests there was
an extremely rapid expansion milliseconds after the big bang
isotropic identical in all directions
oscillating universe theory theory about the origin of the universe that suggests the universe
is a never-ending cycle of expansion and contraction
perfect cosmological principle steady state theorists' belief that the universe looks the
same in the past, present, and future, and does not change over time
quasars the oldest and farthest celestial bodies of the universe
steady state theory theory about the origin of the universe that suggests the universe
has been and will continue to be as it is now
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 5: Science Weighs In
cosmic microwave background radiation remaining heat or energy left over by the big
bang
Doppler effect a change in the frequency of sound or light waves that can determine
distance
Hubble expansion law the recessional velocity, which is the speed of a celestial body
moving away from the observer, is proportional to its distance
primordial primitive; in its earliest form
radiation emission of energy
redshift an increase in the wavelength of radiation emitted by a celestial body
moving away from an observer
visible color spectrum array of colors seen with the naked eye
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 6: A Sequence of Events
accretion process of steady growth of an object by a steady accumulation of
material
condensation theory theory about the origin of the solar system that agrees with the
nebular theory, but stresses the importance of interstellar dust in planet formation
interstellar among or between stars
nebula enormous cloud of gas and dust in space
nebular theory theory about the origin of the solar system that suggests our Sun and
planets formed from a nebula, a cloud of dust and gas
nuclear fusion a nuclear reaction where nuclei combine and release intense energy
nuclei the centers of atoms which contain most of their mass
protoplanet a planet in its first stage of development
protostar a star in its first stage of development
solar nebula cloud of gas and dust from which our solar system formed
stellar evolution the life cycle of a star
supernova an explosion of a star that emits large amounts of matter and energy
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 7: Planetary Motion
aphelion farthest point from the Sun in a planet's orbit
ellipse geometric shape resembling a flattened circle that has two focal points
geocentric model of the solar system that suggested Earth was the center of the
universe and everything orbited around it
heliocentric model of the solar system that suggested the Sun was the center of the
universe and planets orbit it in circular paths
perihelion closest point to the Sun in a planet's orbit
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 8: Ability to Orbit
inertia the tendency of an object to remain in its current state; if it is at rest, an
object will tend to remain at rest; if it's in motion, an object will tend to remain in motion
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 9: A Unique Planet
accretion process of steady growth of an object by a steady accumulation of
material
atmosphere the gaseous layer of a planet usually retained by its gravity
biosphere the system of Earth by which living organisms exist
cryosphere the frozen water or ice system of a planet
differentiation a process creating different layered compositions of a planet
hydrosphere the water system of the earth; includes solid, gas, and liquid water
lithosphere the rigid, crustal layer of Earth
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 10: Test
Unit 1 Origin of Earth
Assignment 11: Glossary
accretion process of steady growth of an object by a steady accumulation of
material
aphelion farthest point from the Sun in a planet's orbit
astronomer a scientist who studies various stars, galaxies, and planets of the universe
astronomy the study of the universe beyond the earth
atmosphere the gaseous layer of a planet usually retained by its gravity
big bang theory theory that suggests the origin of the universe started with a "bang" and
expansion of a very hot, dense, compact fireball
biosphere the system of Earth by which living organisms exist
condensation theory theory about the origin of the solar system that agrees with the
nebular theory, but stresses the importance of interstellar dust in planet formation
cosmic microwave background radiation remaining heat or energy left over by the big bang
cosmological principle states that the universe looks the same at any location, but can change over time
cosmologist scientist who studies the origin and structure of the universe
cosmology the study of the origin and structure of the universe
cryosphere the frozen water or ice system of a planet
differentiation a process creating different layered compositions of a planet
Doppler effect a change in the frequency of sound or light waves that can determine
distance
ellipse geometric shape resembling a flattened circle that has two focal points
galaxy a large scale collection of stars, dust, and gas held together by gravity
general relativity theory Albert Einstein's theory that space and time are relative to matter
geocentric model of the solar system that suggested earth was the center of the
universe and everything orbited around it
geologist a scientist who studies topics related to the structure and composition of
the earth
geology the study of the structure of the earth, and the physical forces that continuously impact the structure of the earth itself
geosphere the solid, rocky layer of a planet
heliocentric model of the solar system that suggested the Sun was the center of the universe, and planets orbit it in circular paths
Hubble expansion law the recessional velocity, which is the speed of a celestial body moving away from the observer, is proportional to its distance
hydrosphere the water system of the earth; includes solid, gas, and liquid water
inertia the tendency of an object to remain in its current state; if it is at rest to
remain at rest, and if it's in motion, to remain in motion
inflation theory theory that upholds the big bang theory, but suggests there was an
extremely rapid expansion or inflation milliseconds after the big bang
interstellar among or between stars
isotropic identical in all directions
lithosphere the solid, crustal layer of Earth
meteorologist a scientist who studies the changes in atmospheric conditions that produce different weather and climate patterns
meteorology the study of the earth's atmosphere and the processes that produce weather and climate conditions
nebula enormous cloud of gas and dust in space
nebular theory theory about the origin of the solar system that suggests our Sun and
planets formed from a cloud of dust and gas
nuclear fusion a nuclear reaction where nuclei combine and release intense energy
nuclei the center of an atom containing most of its mass
oceanographer a scientist who studies the oceans of the earth using the scientific
disciplines of biology, chemistry, physics, and geology
oceanography the study of the earth's oceans
oscillating universe theory theory about the origin of the universe that suggests the
universe is a never-ending cycle of expansion and contraction
perfect cosmological principle steady state theorists' belief that the universe looks the
same in the past, present, and future, and does not change over time
perihelion closest point to the Sun in a planet's orbit
primordial primitive; in its earliest form
protoplanet a planet in its first stage of development
protostar a star in its first stage of development
quasars the oldest and farthest celestial bodies of the universe
radiation emission of energy
redshift an increase of wavelength of radiation emitted by a celestial body moving
away from an observer
science a collective human effort to comprehend, or better understand, the history
of the natural world and how it works, through physical evidence collected via observations
scientific hypothesis a proposed explanation for a narrow set of phenomena
scientific law a description of an observed phenomenon that holds true every time it's
tested under a given set of conditions
scientific theory a scientific explanation formulated based on known facts and repeated
testing
solar nebula cloud of gas and dust from which our solar system formed
steady state theory theory about the origin of the universe that suggests the universe has and
will continue to be at a steady, continuous state
stellar evolution the life cycle of a star
supernova an explosion of a star that emits large amounts of matter and energy
visible color spectrum array of colors visible to the naked eye
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 1: Determining Earth’s Age
catastrophism theory that Earth's rock layers formed in a global flood followed by the
uplifting of rocks and mountain building over a short, violent period, possibly in the recent past
gradualism theory that rocks form slowly over time through processes of volcanism,
erosion, and sedimentation
molecular clock a technique for estimating the age of species by comparing molecular
differences between species
sediment dirt, pieces of rock, and the remains of living things at the bottom of
oceans, seas, and lakes
uniformitarianism geologic principle that Earth's processes act in the same manner today as
they always have throughout Earth's history
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 2: Relative Dating
index fossil a fossil that is widespread geographically but only occurs in one
layer or a small number of layers of rock
law of cross-cutting (or intrusive) relationships in a sequence of layered rocks,
the crosscut, or intrusive feature, is younger than the layers it intercedes
law of faunal and floral succession animals and plant fossils occur in consistent
sequences through time, generally changing from simpler to more complex
law of original horizontality sediment deposited into water will settle at the bottom
in flat, horizontal layers
law of original lateral continuity sediment deposited into water will spread in a
horizontal and continuous sheet
law of superposition any undisturbed sequence of layered rocks has the oldest
rock on the bottom and newest rock on the top
paleontology study of fossils
relative dating process to determine the general time sequence of historic events,
rock strata, and fossils
stratigraphy study of rock layers and the processes that form them
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 3: Absolute Dating
absolute time geologic time measured in a specific duration of years
molecular clock a technique for estimating the age of species by comparing molecular
differences between species
radioactive decay spontaneous disintegration of the atoms of certain isotopes into new
isotopes
radiometric dating dating a rock or mineral by measuring the proportions of an original
radioactive material and its decay products
relative time placing events in chronological order without reference to their ages
measured in years
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 4: Geological Time
eon longest interval of geologic time
era major divisions of geologic time within each eon; identified by major
changes in the fossil record
eukaryotic a cell that has complex internal structures, such as a nucleus; e.g., plant
and animal cells
period major divisions of geologic time within each era; identified by changes in
the fossil record
prokaryotic a simple cell that lacks complex internal structures, e.g., bacterial cells
stromatolites fossil mounds made of ancient photosynthetic bacteria
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 5: Mass Extinctions
basaltic common gray to black volcanic rock, usually fine-grained due to rapid
cooling of lava
glaciation the advance and retreat of large masses of slow-moving ice
mass extinction the process in which huge numbers of species die out suddenly
rifting process by which the earth's crust is pulled apart and new crust forms
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 6: Fossils
decomposition the state or process of rotting or decay.
excavation the action of excavating (unearthing) something, especially at an
archaeological site.
fossils traces, remains, or impressions of a prehistoric organism preserved in
petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock.
fossil record The placement of fossils throughout the surface layers of the Earth that
are used as a guide for determining when life forms existed, and how they
evolved.
paleoanthropology The study of early forms of humans and their primate ancestors.
sedimentation the natural process in which material is carried to the bottom of a body of
water and forms a solid layer.
taphonomy The study of the conditions under which plants, animals, and other
organisms become altered after death and sometimes preserved as fossils.
transition fossil any fossil which gives us information about a transition from one species
to another.
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 7: Paleoclimatic Changes
atmosphere the gaseous envelope of a planet
climate long-term weather patterns of a particular area
Greenhouse Effect warming of the atmosphere caused by gases that absorb heat from
Earth's surface
outgassing to lose gases into the atmosphere
Pangaea supercontinent which connected the landmasses of the southern and
northern hemispheres
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 8: Test
Unit 2 History of Earth
Assignment 9: Glossary
absolute time geologic time measured in a specific duration of years
atmosphere the gaseous envelope of a planet
basaltic common gray to black volcanic rock, usually fine-grained due to rapid
cooling of lava
catastrophism theory that Earth's rock layers formed in a global flood followed by the
uplifting of rocks and mountain building over a short, violent period, possibly in the recent past
climate long-term weather patterns of a particular area
cyanobacteria simple photosynthetic bacteria; evidence indicates they are among the
earliest forms of life
decomposition the state or process of rotting or decay.
eon longest interval of geologic time
era major divisions of geologic time within each eon; identified by major
changes in the fossil record
eukaryotic a cell that has complex internal structures, such as a nucleus; e.g., plant
and animal cells
excavation the action of excavating (unearthing) something, especially at an
archaeological site.
fossils traces, remains, or impressions of a prehistoric organism preserved in
petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock.
fossil record The placement of fossils throughout the surface layers of the Earth that
are used as a guide for determining when life forms existed, and how they evolved.
glaciation the advance and retreat of large masses of slow-moving ice
gradualism theory that rocks form slowly over time through processes of volcanism,
erosion, and sedimentation
Greenhouse Effect warming of the atmosphere caused by gases that absorb heat from
Earth's surface
index fossil a fossil that is widespread geographically but only occurs in one layer or a
small number of layers of rock
law of cross-cutting (or intrusive) relationships in a sequence of layered rocks, the
crosscut, or intrusive feature, is younger than the layers it intercedes
law of faunal and floral succession animals and plant fossils occur in consistent
sequences through time, generally changing from simpler to more
complex
law of original horizontality sediment deposited into water will settle at the bottom in flat,
horizontal layers
law of original lateral continuity sediment deposited into water will spread in a horizontal
and continuous sheet
law of superposition any undisturbed sequence of layered rocks has the oldest rock on
the bottom and newest rock on the top
mass extinction the process in which huge numbers of species die out suddenly
molecular clock a technique for estimating the age of species by comparing molecular
differences between species
outgassing to lose gasses into the atmosphere
paleontology study of fossils
paleoanthropology The study of early forms of humans and their primate ancestors.
Pangaea supercontinent which connected the landmasses of the southern and
northern hemispheres
period major divisions of geologic time within each era; identified by changes in
the fossil record
prokaryotic a simple cell that lacks complex internal structures, e.g., bacterial cells
radioactive decay spontaneous disintegration of the atoms of certain isotopes into new
isotopes
radiometric dating dating a rock or mineral by measuring the proportions of an original
radioactive material and its decay products
relative dating process to determine the general time sequence of historic events, rock
strata, and fossils
relative time placing events in chronological order without reference to their ages
measured in years
rifting process by which the earth's crust is pulled apart and new crust forms
sediment dirt, pieces of rock, and the remains of living things at the bottom of
oceans, seas, and lakes
sedimentation the natural process in which material is carried to the bottom of a body of
water and forms a solid layer.
stratigraphy study of rock layers and the processes that form them
stromatolite layered structure produced by colonies of cyanobacteria; among earliest
fossil evidence of life
taphonomy The study of the conditions under which plants, animals, and other
organisms become altered after death and sometimes preserved as fossils.
transition fossil any fossil which gives us information about a transition from one species
to another.
uniformitarianism geologic principle that Earth's processes act in the same manner today as
they always have throughout Earth's history
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 1: Layers of the Earth
asthenosphere the layer immediately surrounding the lower mantle; composed of molten
rock
core innermost layer of the earth; divided into an inner and outer core
crust the outermost layer that forms the surface of the earth; upper part of the
lithosphere
geosphere all of the layers of Earth's interior and crust
inner core innermost region of the earth; composed of solid iron
lithosphere the cool, rigid shell that includes the crust and uppermost mantle;
composed of plates that move around on the underlying, plastic asthenosphere
lower mantle innermost layer of the two mantle layers; composed of rock and cooler
than the core
mantle middle layer of the earth; composed of an upper and lower mantle
outer core layer immediately outside the inner core; composed of liquid iron and
sulfur
plasticity ability of a solid to flow
upper mantle outermost layer of the two mantle layers; includes the asthenosphere and
lower lithosphere; composed of solid rock, most of which flows due to convection currents within the mantle
they always have throughout Earth's history
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 2: Earth’s Structure
biological evolutionary model A model that explains how existing species arise from
earlier species through the mechanism of natural selection
geoscientists Scientists who study the composition, structure, and other physical
aspects of the Earth, as well as Earth’s geologic history. They use specific instruments to examine the composition of Earth, rock, and water. They use the principles of physics, mathematics, and chemistry to study not only the Earth’s surface, but also its internal composition, ground and surface waters, oceans, atmosphere, and magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces
plate tectonics model A model that explains how the continents used to fit together like
jigsaw pieces. This theory is the origin of many earthquakes and volcanoes and explains the global distribution of some living things.
primary wave the fastest kind of seismic wave, and consequently, the first to arrive at a
seismic station. Primary waves can move through solid rock and fluids.
secondary (or shear) wave A seismic ‘body wave’ that shakes the ground back and forth
perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving. Secondary waves are slower than the primary waves and arrive after the primary waves from the epicenter.
seismograms Recordings made by a seismograph
seismograph A machine which tells us about the strength and speed of seismic waves.
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 3: Earth’s Cooling and Tectonics
asthenosphere A layer of the mantle beneath the lithosphere composed of denser
semi-solid rock.
bathymetry The study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors
convection The transfer of heat through a fluid; a circular motion that occurs when
warmer (less dense) air or liquid rises, while the cooler air or liquid sinks.
lithosphere The solid-rock outer section of Earth, which includes Earth’s crust and the
cool, dense, and rigid upper mantle.
mantle The layer of Earth’s interior that is mostly solid located between the core
and crust. It makes up a whopping 84% of Earth’s total volume.
mid-ocean ridge Chains of underwater (submarine) volcanoes and rift valleys formed when
molten rocks (magma) come into contact with seawater. It is also known
as the Oceanic Spreading Ridge or spreading centers.
plate tectonics Theory that states that the Earth’s outermost layer is broken into a dozen
or more slabs of varying sizes or tectonic plates, that are moving comparably to each other as they move a top of hotter mantle material (called the asthenosphere).
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 4: Continental Drift
continental drift theory proposed by Alfred Wegener that the continents once formed a
single supercontinent that broke up and drifted apart
Glossopteris ancient, extinct plant species found on the continents of South America,
Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica
Mesosaurus small, extinct land reptile that lived 270 million years ago whose fossil
remains have been found in western Africa and eastern South America
Pangaea meaning "all lands"; name of the supercontinent that is theorized to have
contained all of the current continents in a single landmass
Panthalassa meaning "all seas"; name of the single, large ocean that surrounded
Pangaea
seafloor spreading process by which the Earth's lithospheric plates pull apart from each
other, creating gaps that are filled with magma from the asthenosphere
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 5: Plate Tectonics
asthenosphere the outer layer of the mantle; made up of plastic or semi-molten rock
continental crust the part of Earth's crust that forms landmasses
convection process of heat transfer by the circulation or movement of a gas, liquid, or
plastic material
convergent boundary the boundary created by two plates moving toward each other
divergent boundary the boundary created by two plates moving away from each other
lithosphere earth's crust and rigid portion of uppermost mantle
magma the result of an oceanic plate as it begins to melt while conforming to a
subduction zone
mid-ocean ridge a mountain range that is formed by seams that run along the floor of the
ocean
oceanic crust the part of Earth's crust located beneath the oceans and seas
plate tectonics the theory that the lithosphere is broken into pieces that float on the
asthenosphere
seafloor spreading the process that occurs when new oceanic crust is formed through
volcanic activity
sonar a device that uses sound waves to measure distance to an object
subduction the process in which a deep part of the ocean is formed by the
intersection of an oceanic plate and continental plate
transform boundary the boundary created by two plates moving alongside each other
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 6: Plate Boundaries
convergent boundary area where tectonic plates meet and push against each other
divergent boundary area where tectonic plates are moving away from each other
fault line area along plate boundaries and ridges where the crust of the lithosphere
is fractured
subduction zone area where an oceanic plate sinks into the asthenosphere under another
plate
transform boundary area where tectonic plates slide sideways past each other
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 7: The Spheres of Earth
atmosphere the gaseous layer of a planet, usually retained by its gravity
biosphere the living organisms of Earth
hydrosphere the water system of the earth; solid, liquid, and gas phases
lithosphere the solid, crustal layer of Earth
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 8: Geochemical Cycles: Cycles of Earth Materials
deposition process by which sediment flows into a reservoir
equilibrium two opposing forces in balance or when two opposite processes occur at
equal rates
hydrologic cycle a natural and continuous cycle of Earth that recycles and distributes
Earth's water; often called the water cycle
metamorphism process of intense heat and pressure which changes igneous or
sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock
rock cycle natural and continuous cycle of Earth that recycles Earth's minerals
tectonic cycle natural and continuous cycle of Earth that recycles Earth's lithospheric
plates
transpiration the process by which plants give off water vapor
weathering process that breaks down rock through physical and chemical changes
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 9: Biogeochemical Cycles: Cycles of Life Materials
ammonification process by which certain bacteria convert organic nitrogen into ammonia
and ammonium salts during decomposition
assimilation process by which plants or animals convert nutrients into usable organic
compounds, such as proteins
denitrification process by which certain bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas
nitrification process by which certain bacteria convert ammonium into nitrates
nitrogen fixation process by which certain bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen gas into
ammonia and ammonium
photosynthesis process by which green plants convert carbon dioxide, water, and energy
from the Sun into sugars
respiration process by which living cells produce usable energy from food
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 10: Flow of Energy in Ecosystems
decomposers bacteria and fungi that break down dead matter
food chain line of plants and animals that shows the order in which organisms are
eaten
food web a diagram that shows the connections among food chains in an
ecosystem
kinetic related to or possessing motion
potential something possible; ability to go into action or perform work
primary consumer organisms that eat producers
secondary consumer organisms that eat primary consumers
tertiary consumer predator that eats secondary consumers
thermodynamics the study of energy and its transformations
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 11: Test
Unit 3 Dynamic Structure of Earth
Assignment 12: Glossary
ammonification process by which certain bacteria convert organic nitrogen into ammonia
and ammonium salts during decomposition
assimilation process by which plants or animals convert nutrients into usable organic
compounds, such as proteins
asthenosphere the layer immediately surrounding the lower mantle; composed of molten
rock
atmosphere the gaseous layer of a planet, usually retained by its gravity
bathymetry The study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors
biosphere the living organisms of Earth
biological evolutionary model A model that explains how existing species arise from
earlier species through the mechanism of natural selection
continental crust the part of Earth's crust that forms landmasses
continental drift theory proposed by Alfred Wegener that the continents once formed a
single supercontinent that broke up and drifted apart
convection process of heat transfer by the circulation or movement of a gas, liquid, or
plastic material
convergent boundary area where tectonic plates meet and push against each other
core innermost layer of the earth; divided into an inner and outer core
crust the outermost layer that forms the surface of the earth; upper part of the
lithosphere
decomposers bacteria and fungi that break down dead matter
denitrification process by which certain bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas
deposition process by which sediment flows into a reservoir
divergent boundary area where tectonic plates are moving away from each other
equilibrium two opposing forces in balance or when two opposite processes occur at
equal rates
fault line area along plate boundaries and ridges where the crust of the lithosphere
is fractured
food chain line of plants and animals that shows the order in which organisms are
eaten
food web a diagram that shows the connections among food chains in an
ecosystem
geoscientists Scientists who study the composition, structure, and other physical
aspects of the Earth, as well as Earth's geologic history. They use specific instruments to examine the composition of Earth, rock, and water. They use the principles of physics, mathematics, and chemistry to study not only the Earth's surface, but also its internal composition, ground and surface waters, oceans, atmosphere, and magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces
geosphere all of the layers of Earth's interior and crust
Glossopteris ancient, extinct plant species found on the continents of South America,
Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica
hydrologic cycle a natural and continuous cycle of Earth that recycles and distributes
Earth's water; often called the water cycle
hydrosphere the water system of the earth; solid, liquid, and gas phases
inner core innermost region of the earth; composed of solid iron
Kinetic related to or possessing motion
lithosphere the cool, rigid shell that includes the crust and uppermost mantle;
composed of plates that move around on the underlying, plastic asthenosphere
lower mantle innermost layer of the two mantle layers; composed of rock and cooler
than the core
magma the result of an oceanic plate as it begins to melt while conforming to a
subduction zone
mantle middle layer of the earth; composed of an upper and lower mantle
Mesosaurus small, extinct land reptile that lived 270 million years ago whose fossil
remains have been found in western Africa and eastern South America
metamorphism process of intense heat and pressure which changes igneous or
sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock
mid-ocean ridge Chains of underwater (submarine) volcanoes and rift valleys formed when
molten rocks (magma) come into contact with seawater. It is also known as the Oceanic Spreading Ridge or spreading centers.
nitrification process by which certain bacteria convert ammonium into nitrates
nitrogen fixation process by which certain bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen gas into
ammonia and ammonium
oceanic crust the part of Earth's crust located beneath the oceans and seas
outer core layer immediately outside the inner core; composed of liquid iron and
sulfur
Pangaea meaning "all lands"; name of the supercontinent that is theorized to have
contained all of the current continents in a single landmass
Panthalassa meaning "all seas"; name of the single, large ocean that surrounded
Pangaea
photosynthesis process by which green plants convert carbon dioxide, water, and energy
from the Sun into sugars
plasticity ability of a solid to flow
plate tectonics the theory that the lithosphere is broken into pieces that float on the
asthenosphere
plate tectonics model A model that explains how the continents used to fit together like
jigsaw pieces. This theory is the origin of many earthquakes and
volcanoes and explains the global distribution of some living things.
potential something possible; ability to go into action or perform work
primary consumer organisms that eat producers
primary wave the fastest kind of seismic wave, and consequently, the first to arrive at a
seismic station. Primary waves can move through solid rock and fluids.
respiration process by which living cells produce usable energy from food
rock cycle natural and continuous cycle of Earth that recycles Earth's minerals
seafloor spreading process by which the Earth's lithospheric plates pull apart from each
other, creating gaps that are filled with magma from the asthenosphere
secondary consumer organisms that eat primary consumers
secondary (or shear) wave A seismic 'body wave' that shakes the ground back and forth
perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving. Secondary waves are slower than the primary waves and arrive after the primary waves from the epicenter.
Seismograms Recordings made by a seismograph.
seismograph A machine which tells us about the strength and speed of seismic waves.
sonar a device that uses sound waves to measure distance to an object
subduction zone area where an oceanic plate sinks into the asthenosphere under another
plate
tectonic cycle natural and continuous cycle of Earth that recycles Earth's lithospheric
plates
tertiary consumer predator that eats secondary consumers
thermodynamics the study of energy and its transformations
transform boundary area where tectonic plates slide sideways past each other
transpiration the process by which plants give off water vapor
upper mantle outermost layer of the two mantle layers; includes the asthenosphere and
lower lithosphere; composed of solid rock, most of which flows due to convection currents within the mantle
weathering process that breaks down rock through physical and chemical changes
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 1: Force of Earthquakes
aftershocks smaller earthquakes that occur after a major earthquake
body waves waves that travel through the interior of Earth; there are two types:
primary and secondary waves
convection process of heat transfer by the circulation or movement of a gas, liquid, or
plastic material
elastic rebound immediate return of deformed rock to its natural shape
epicenter location on the earth's surface directly over the focus of an earthquake
focus specific point in the earth where the rock layers along a fault move,
producing an earthquake
liquefaction wet soil behaves like a liquid and is no longer able to support buildings
during an earthquake
surface waves waves that travel on the surface of the earth; there is one type of surface
wave: Love waves
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 2: Measuring the Force of Earthquakes
foreshocks mini-quakes that usually occur before a major earthquake
magnitude measure of the total amount of energy released during an earthquake
Mercalli intensity scale scale that measures the effects or severity of an earthquake
moment magnitude scale newer magnitude scale that measures the amount of moved
(displaced) rock along a fault to determine the strength of an earthquake
Richter scale scale of magnitude based on the size of seismic waves produced by an
earthquake
seismic gaps areas on active faults where a major earthquake hasn't occurred in a long
time
seismogram a record of the time and intensity of the energy waves produced by an
earthquake
seismograph instrument used to record and measure vibrations from earthquakes or
earth tremors
seismology scientific study of earthquakes
triangulation process used to locate the epicenter of an earthquake
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 3: Features of Earthquakes
anticline arch-shaped, upward fold in rock
footwall block of rock below the slant of a fault
graben a lower block of rock between two normal faults
hanging wall block of rock above the slant of a fault
horst an uplifted block of rock between two normal faults
monocline a ramp-like fold between flat rock layers at different elevations
normal fault fault that occurs when two tectonic plates are moving apart from each
other; the hanging wall drops relative to the footwall
reverse fault fault that occurs when two tectonic plates collide; the hanging wall rises
relative to the footwall
scarp cliff-like landform created by a normal fault
strike-slip fault fault that occurs when two tectonic plates are sliding sideways against
each other in opposite directions
syncline U-shaped, downward fold in rock
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 4: Force of Volcanoes
andesitic magma magma that is a mix of basaltic and rhyolitic; eruption may or may not be
explosive
basaltic magma magma that has low viscosity and low silica and gas content; eruption is
non-explosive
cinder cone volcano volcano formed of volcanic rock and ash; erodes quickly
composite volcano volcano that is tall and steep; formed of lava and volcanic debris
Hawaiian eruption non-explosive or very mild volcanic eruption
hot spot an active area of volcanoes due to a consistent source of magma in the
asthenosphere
plinian eruption the most powerful, explosive type of volcanic eruption
pyroclastic flow volcanic flow that contains a high concentration of gases, ash, and small
rocks
rhyolitic magma magma that has a high viscosity and high silica and gas content; eruption
tends to be very explosive
shield volcano volcano that has tall, broad slopes; formed by repeated, gradual lava
flows
strombolian eruption an intermittent explosive volcanic eruption
viscosity ability of a substance to resist flowing
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 5: Impact of Volcanoes
geothermal energy energy produced from the heat of magma and other volcanic materials
lahar an avalanche of water, mud, and other materials that a volcanic eruption
can produce
tephra volcanic rock and debris that is blasted from a volcano during an eruption
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 6: Prediction of Volcanoes
correlation spectrometer instrument used to measure volcanic gases
plume gassy smoke released by a volcano
tiltmeter instrument used to measure ground swelling
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 7: Features of Volcanoes
batholith a large mass of hardened igneous rock beneath all layers of sedimentary
rock
dike vertical intrusion of magma between rock layers
extrusive igneous rock that forms on Earth's surface
guyot a volcanic island under sea that has been cut off by wave erosion
intrusive igneous rock that forms in Earth's interior
laccolith intrusive rock that pushes its way between sedimentary strata in the
shape of a dome
seamount an underwater volcano
sill horizontal intrusion of magma between rock layers
volcanic neck tall feature that forms when the sides of a volcano erode, leaving the rock
that filled the central vent of the volcano
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 8: Using Geologic Maps
cartographer someone who creates maps
compass provides direction of north, east, south, and west
contact line light, thin line that separates rock units or types on a geologic map
fold axis semi-dark line that indicates the ridge of a fold on a geologic map
geologic map shows locations and types of rocks and other features, like faults and
folds
legend provides an explanation of lines and symbols given on a map
scale the ratio of distance represented on a map to distance on Earth
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 9: Using Topographical Maps
contour interval the distance between contour lines of elevation
contour lines lines of equal elevation that display height, shape, and steepness of
ground features
hachure marks teeth-like marks on contour lines that indicate a depression or sunken
area
topographic map also known as a contour map; shows shape, steepness, and height of
ground features by using contour lines
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 10: Test
Unit 4 Forces and Features of Earth
Assignment 11: Glossary
aftershocks smaller earthquakes that occur after a major earthquake
andesitic magma magma that is a mix of basaltic and rhyolitic; eruption may or may not be
explosive
anticline arch-shaped, upward fold in rock
basaltic magma magma that has low viscosity and low silica and gas content; eruption is
non-explosive
batholith a large mass of hardened igneous rock beneath all layers of sedimentary
rock
body waves waves that travel through the interior of Earth; there are two types:
primary (P) and secondary (S) waves
cartographer someone who creates maps
cinder cone volcano volcano formed of volcanic rock and ash; erodes quickly
compass provides direction of north, east, south, and west
composite volcano volcano that is tall and steep; formed of lava and volcanic debris
contact line light, thin line that separates rock units or types on a geologic map
contour interval the distance between contour lines of elevation
contour lines lines of equal elevation that display height, shape, and steepness of
ground features
convection process of heat transfer by the circulation or movement of a gas, liquid, or
plastic material
correlation spectrometer instrument used to measure volcanic gases
dike vertical intrusion of magma between rock layers
elastic rebound immediate return of deformed rock to its natural shape
epicenter location on the earth's surface directly over the focus of an earthquake
extrusive igneous rock that forms on Earth's surface
focus specific point in the earth where the rock layers along a fault move,
producing an earthquake
fold axis semi-dark line that indicates the ridge of a fold on a geologic map
footwall block of rock below the slant of a fault
foreshocks mini-quakes that usually occur before a major earthquake
geologic map shows locations and types of rocks and other features, like faults and
folds
geothermal energy energy produced from the heat of magma and other volcanic materials
graben a lower block of rock between two normal faults
guyot a volcanic island under sea that has been cut off by wave erosion
hachure marks teeth-like marks on contour lines that indicate a depression or sunken
area
hanging wall block of rock above the slant of a fault
Hawaiian eruption non-explosive or very mild volcanic eruption
horst an uplifted block of rock between two normal faults
hot spot an active area of volcanoes due to a consistent source of magma in the
asthenosphere
intrusive igneous rock that forms in Earth's interior
laccolith intrusive rock that pushes its way between sedimentary strata in the
shape of a dome
lahar an avalanche of water, mud, and other materials that a volcanic eruption
can produce
legend provides an explanation of lines and symbols given on a map
liquefaction wet soil behaves like a liquid and is no longer able to support buildings
during an earthquake
magnitude measure of the total amount of energy released during an earthquake
Mercalli intensity scale scale that measures the effects or severity of an earthquake
moment magnitude scale newer magnitude scale that measures the amount of moved
(displaced) rock along a fault to determine the strength of an earthquake
monocline a ramp-like fold between flat rock layers at different elevations
normal fault fault that occurs when two tectonic plates are moving apart from each
other; the hanging wall drops relative to the footwall
plinian eruption the most powerful, explosive type of volcanic eruption
plume gassy smoke released by a volcano
pyroclastic flow volcanic flow that contains a high concentration of gases, ash, and small
rocks
reverse fault fault that occurs when two tectonic plates collide; the hanging wall rises
relative to the footwall
rhyolitic magma magma that has a high viscosity and high silica and gas content; eruption
tends to be very explosive
Richter scale scale of magnitude based on the size of seismic waves produced by an
earthquake
scale the ratio of distance represented on a map to distance on Earth
scarp cliff-like landform created by a normal fault
seamount an underwater volcano
seismic gaps areas on active faults where a major earthquake hasn't occurred in a long
time
seismograph instrument used to record and measure vibrations from earthquakes or
earth tremors
seismogram a record of the time and intensity of the energy waves produced by an
earthquake
seismology scientific study of earthquakes
shield volcano volcano that has tall, broad slopes; formed by repeated, gradual lava
flows
sill horizontal intrusion of magma between rock layers
strike-slip fault fault that occurs when two tectonic plates are sliding sideways against
each other in opposite directions
strombolian eruption an intermittent explosive volcanic eruption
surface waves waves that travel on the surface of the earth; there is one type of surface
wave: Love (L) waves
syncline U-shaped, downward fold in rock
tephra volcanic rock and debris that is blasted from a volcano during an eruption
tiltmeter instrument used to measure ground swelling
topographic map also known as a contour map; shows shape, steepness, and height of
ground features by using contour lines
triangulation process used to locate the epicenter of an earthquake
viscosity ability of a substance to resist flowing
volcanic neck eroded volcanic feature that formed from magma cooling in the central
vent of a volcano