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Academic writing
Academic writing
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Tip 1: Write in a formal, straightforward way
Tip 1: Write in a formal, straightforward way
Casual or conversational language is not appropriate for academic writing.
Avoid sentence fragments, such as ‘Not at all.’ and ‘Which he didn’t.’
Do not use contracted words such as 'isn't', 'don't' or 'couldn't'.
Avoid abbreviations such as ‘e.g.’, ‘i.e.’ and ‘etc.’
Be concise - very academic language and extremely long sentences do not impress markers. Your marker needs to understand what you mean, in as few words as possible
Avoid using questions in your writing, structure your point as a full sentence.
Tip 2: Avoid unnecessary words
Tip 2: Avoid unnecessary words
Qualifying adverbs will detract from your work. Examples include very; extremely; quite; absolutely; utterly; completely; totally; rather; really
You will not get marks for waffle, or for repeating a point several times when one example will suffice
Watch out for tautology. This involves using different words to say the same thing. For example, “in addition it is also necessary” or “the results were outstandingly unusual”
Avoid clichés and proverbs (e.g. “put a cat amongst the pigeons”, “needle in a haystack” or “acid test”)
Tip 3: Support your views
Tip 3: Support your views
Engage objectively with all of your source material. Be critical and impartial.
Your markers are looking for you to put across an argument that is supported by the work of other people
If you make a statement in your work, you must be prepared for your marker to say ‘can you justify this?’
This does not mean that you cannot put an opinion across, but you must provide evidence to support it
Tip 4: Be cautious
Tip 4: Be cautious
In business and law, it is almost impossible to prove something absolutely
Somebody else can often argue against our viewpoint using different evidence, so our writing must be cautious
Watch out for words like ‘should’, ‘ought’ and ‘must’
Words like ‘may’ and ‘could’ are more cautious.
For more help with this, search this site for Academic Caution
Tip 5: Talk about your work, not yourself
Tip 5: Talk about your work, not yourself
Academic writing is usually impersonal, so avoid using pronouns which refer to yourself or to your reader
These include I, me, my, you, your, we, our, us
Put the focus on your work instead of yourself
Instead of writing ‘I am surprised that...’ you might write ‘It is surprising that...’
Instead of writing “I will argue that...” you could write “This essay will argue that...”
For more help on this topic, search this site for Writing in the Third Person
Getting Started with your Assignment
Getting Started with your Assignment
When writing an assignment, you may have a clear idea about how to answer the question and structure your work. However, this is not always the case. We often meet students who ask:
“I have done some reading, but how do I actually go about writing my assignment? And how do I decide what to include?”
Step 1: Check what you have been asked to do
Use our handout on interpreting questions to make sure you are confident about this.
Read your assignment instructions and check your unit handbook for any tips and guidance on producing this piece of work (these sometimes provide recommended structures or frameworks to follow).
Step 2: Do your research
This stage of the process involves finding information on the topic of the assignment. Your lecture and seminar notes are good starting points, as are texts recommended on your unit reading list.
For tips on how to find useful information, speak to the library staff.
Step 3: Use your research to come up with ideas for your assignment
In order to turn your research into a well‐structured assignment, you need to find a way of organising it. One method of doing this is to create a grid to break your research into themes.
Use one axis to note the source (books, journal articles, websites etc.) and the other axis to record themes that occur. Your grid can be structured like this:
To begin with you may not be sure which themes to choose, but you will become more confident as you start to read different sources and populate the grid. This process takes time, and you may have to read several sources to work out what the main themes on the topic are.
Wherever you feel a theme has occurred within a source, you may want to provide a quote or brief summary, and a citation (so you can retrieve the information again easily if you need it).
Some themes will be more substantial than others, which may help you decide which ones to focus on when writing your assignment.
You can then structure your work around these themes (e.g. one paragraph per theme), showing what different writers think on each topic (examples, and arguments for and against a point of view).
Once you have started to populate it, the grid might look like this:
Step 4: Use a concept map to set out your assignment plan/ideas
Diagrams such as concept maps can help you plan out the different parts of your assignment. These involve the use of a central theme in the middle of the diagram, with points and sub‐points branching off.
If you have a good idea of what is involved, you could use a concept map to plan out your assignment early on in the process (i.e. before step 2). However, if you aren’t sure where to begin, it may be best to do it after you have done some reading (step 3).
An example of a concept map:
Step 5: Start writing
You will hopefully now have enough ideas to begin writing. If not, get in touch with your course team or Academic Skills Tutors to discuss your planning further. Our handouts on structuring an assignment and building an argument will help you with the next stages of the process. Good luck!
For further information try one of our recommended texts:
Cottrell, S. (2019). The study skills handbook (Fifth ed.). Macmillan Education UK.
Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2022). Essential study skills : the complete guide to success at university (Fifth edition.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Using Notebook LM a 10 minute conversation has been produced on Getting Started with Your Assignment
Getting Started with Your Assignment.wavAcademic words are used in assignment titles and marking criteria to tell you what to do. This is a guide to the most common ones and what they are asking from you.
Analyse: Examine in detail identifying the most important points.
Compare: Show how two or more things are similar and the relevance or consequences of these differences.
Contrast: Lay out two or more arguments to identify the differences. Indicate if and why these differences are important. You may also be asked to indicate which argument is preferable.
Critically discuss: Looking at the arguments for and against something and weighing them up according to their strengths and weaknesses.
Define: Present a precise meaning.
Describe: Give the main characteristics or features of something.
Discuss: Write about the most important aspects, the arguments for and against and the implications of, something.
Evaluate: Assess the importance or value of something. You will usually need to give the evidence for and against.
Examine: ‘Look closely’ at something, thinking and writing about the detail, and questioning it where appropriate.
Explain: Give reasons why something happens or is the way it is.
Justify: Give evidence to support an argument or idea, why decisions of conclusions are made with consideration of objections.
Outline: Give the main points and/or main structure.
State: Clearly give the main features. Be aware, this is not usually in a list or bulleted form!
Summarise: Draw out the main or most important parts of something.
Structuring your Assignment
Structuring your Assignment
University essays have three key features, an introduction, a main body and a conclusion.
Good introductions and conclusions help to structure your essay and ensure you receive the highest grades in your assessments. These elements follow a learnable format, so it is worth taking the time to do these well.
The Introduction
This should tell your reader:
What you intend to talk about in your essay
How you will address the question or topic
The order in which you will do this
It should not begin to answer the question
The Main Body
This should:
Address the topic logically
Make clear points in well-structured paragraphs
These points must be supported by cited evidence, check the referencing guidance if you are unsure how to do this.
Use reasoning to explain the relevance of your points and evidence to the topic
If any of these features are missing, your argument will be less credible.
The Conclusion
This should:
Remind your reader about your purpose
Summarise your main themes or arguments in a logical way
Answer the question clearly, or address the purpose of the essay.
Set out how you did the things you said you would do, in the introduction
It should demonstrate to your reader that you understand the issues you are writing about
The conclusion should not introduce any new analysis or discussion
Essay Structure Checklist
Essay Structure Checklist
Structuring your assignment checklist.docxWriting Reports
Writing Reports
Report Characteristics
There are many types of report but they almost all have the same structure and purpose. They are typically written to ‘report’ on a piece of research for education or business. They are not the same as essays. Whereas essays mostly pertain to academia, reports will be extensively used throughout business and the world of work. A report will usually be divided into headed sections and sub-sections and may contain charts, illustrations, tables and appendices along with the research methods involved and recommendations for future work.
The Report Structure
This resource about Report Writing is ‘general’ advice. Check with your Moodle site or assignment specification to check for specific requirements, or a report brief. A report may contain all, or some, of the following sections, some are optional and there may be many differences between an early undergraduate report and a postgraduate dissertation.
Title – refer to the Moodle site for guidelines.
Acknowledgements – Usually only for larger reports, dissertations etc.
Abstract – one paragraph summarising the report. Include conclusions. No details. May be read separate from the rest of the report. In business, this may be called an Executive Summary.
List of Contents – List the main sections of the report and the page on which each begins (include appendices).
List of Tables and Illustrations – List any illustrations, charts, maps and so on, giving the page number for each.
Introduction – Briefly discuss what the research is about, why is it important or significant? State your proposals or hypotheses briefly: what are you going to show or prove?
Literature Review – Discuss briefly, some of the most important writings on the subject, discussing other researchers’ main findings. Do you agree or disagree with them? Focus on how previous research connects with and leads up to, your research.
Methodology – How did you conduct your research? What methods did you use? Even if your tutor told you what methods to use, include these in the report. Exactly what were the conditions of the experiment? How did you select them?
Measurement Criteria – Discuss the kinds of data you gathered. How did you analyse them? How reliable or accurate are your data?
Results/Findings – Present your main findings briefly, under headings if appropriate. Give results in the order in which you conducted any experiments, or start with the most important. Be honest.
Analysis of Results/Discussio – Analyse and explain your findings. Were they what you expected? Were they consistent with your hypothesis? Did they fit the theory or seem to disprove it? It is more important that you show that you understand the results than that your hypothesis was proved right or wrong.
Conclusion – In some subjects a conclusion may be inappropriate. Otherwise, summarise your key points and show why your hypothesis can be maintained or rejected.
Recommendations/Limitations – In some subjects, you may be asked to give a numbered list of suggestions for action to resolve problems.
Reference List (APA 7th ed.) / Bibliography (OSCOLA) – List all your sources in alphabetical order. Strictly follow referencing guidelines.
Appendices – Present any essential extra material, such as instructions to participants, copies of materials used, or tables and graphs of data. Number each item. Do not include items unless they are mentioned in the report.
Adapted from Cottrell, 2019
Always bear in mind, the report brief and the research title, or question. Only include material that is relevant to both. A report is your chance to demonstrate both the learning gained from the research experience and an understanding of the processes involved. Report writing is a valuable and appreciated skill in the workplace.
Click on the link to see what should go into the Introduction. Remember to discuss the scope of the report and what it will cover. Briefly mention any theories or models that will be covered but leave detail until later.
A standard academic report will require you to gather initial information through the Literature Review. Keep it relevant (see above). This will cover the theoretical aspects and allow you to demonstrate your understanding of the subject. This understanding should ‘feed into’ the rest of the report.
As with all academic assignments, a conclusion will be required. You might consider each Chapter or Section as a ‘mini-assignment’, giving each one an introduction, argument (or body) and conclusion. For further details see our section on Conclusions. Ensure you have carefully proofread your report before submission.
Doing A Research Report
Doing A Research Report
The above information covers both research reports and reports that may be conducted for a case study, or informational study. At university, you will probably have to undertake research, and report on your findings. For that, the following may be useful.
If you have been asked to include a hypothesis, this may be just a statement of what you expect to discover through your research. Remember, your analysis of the results will be more important than whether your hypothesis was proved or not. You are stating what may, or may not, happen. ‘The research undertaken will seek to prove that it was excessive profiteering within the banking industry, that caused the financial crisis of 2008. A secondary hypothesis is that central banks should have acted earlier to limit the effects’.
Methodology usually consists of two distinct sections, the research philosophy and the methods used. Students can often concern themselves too much with the research philosophy, where you will come across terms such as realism, positivism, pragmatism and interpretivism, and whether you should adopt a deductive or inductive approach. These words mask a simple process of working out which method will be most appropriate to what it is you want to find out. This process will lead on to the methods and research sample that will be used. This section usually is, by necessity, rather descriptive.
The results section is usually a simple presentation of the data which is discussed more fully in the analysis section (if the two are treated separately). Therefore, this section is usually short and contains only data that will address the research question. The analysis will discuss findings in greater detail and may include:-
the significance of your results and whether these confirm or differ from previous research
your conclusions, and the evidence for these
a note of whether or not the research hypothesis was supported
any improvements that could be made to the research method
further research needed
how the results could be applied elsewhere (Cottrell, 2008, p. 266).
For further information try one of our recommended texts:
Cottrell, S. (2019). The study skills handbook (Fifth ed.). Macmillan Education UK.
Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2022). Essential study skills : the complete guide to success at university (Fifth edition.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Using Notebook LM a 13 minute conversation has been produced on Writing Reports - Sructure and Strategy
Writing Reports_ Structure and Strategy.wavReports and Essays - The Differences
Reports and Essays - The Differences
What are the key differences?
What are the key differences?
The following is adapted from Cottrell (2019)
Reports often originate from outside the academic world: they are typical of writing required for the world of work.
Essays originate in academic settings: they are rarely used anywhere else.
Reports often present data and findings that you have collected yourself, for example through a survey, experiment or case study, or by applying theory to your workplace.
Essays focus on analysing or evaluating theory, past research by other people, and ideas. They seldom present the findings of newly conducted research.
Essays and reports have different structures
A report is divided into separate, headed (and sometimes numbered) sections and sub-sections.
Essays do not usually have sections; they flow as a continuous piece of writing.
A report may contain tables, charts and diagrams.
Essays do not usually include tables, charts or diagrams.
Reports usually include descriptions of the methods used, e.g. ‘It was observed...’.
Essays should not refer to the method used in arriving at conclusions.
Reports usually include descriptions of the methods used, e.g. ‘It was observed...’.
Essays should not refer to the method used in arriving at conclusions.
The description in a report often includes comment on how the research could be improved and extended.
Essays are not usually reflective about the process of researching and writing the essay itself.
Reports often include recommendations for action.
Essays do not include recommendations.
The structure of reports
The structure of reports
There is no one right way to write a report – it depends on your subject and, on the purpose of and audience for, the report. Reports are always divided (and often subdivided) into several headed sections (and sub-sections). Here are some common sections that often appear in reports:
An abstract (sometimes called executive summary) that very briefly summarises the whole report (and which should therefore be written last).
An introduction that describes the purpose of the report, explains why it is necessary and/or useful, and sets out its precise aims and objectives.
A literature review that describes current research and thinking on the subject (not the subject itself).
A methods (or methodology) section that describes and justifies the methods used to collect data.
A results (also called findings) section that simply presents the results of the research (so it may consist mainly of tables, charts, diagrams etc.)
A discussion (sometimes called analysis or interpretation) that analyses the results.
A conclusion that summarises the report, often revisiting the aims and objectives.
Recommendations, where the writer uses the results and conclusions of the report to make practical suggestions about the problem or issue being discussed.
A reference list (or bibliography).
Appendices (Appendix 1, Appendix 2, etc.) where data (e.g. in tables), to which the report refers, is ‘stored’.
Because a report contains a number of different headed sections and sub-sections, it also needs a Table of Contents (ToC). The following extract from a report’s ToC shows one common way in which the sections in a report can be organised:
The structure of essays
The structure of essays
An essay does not need a Table of Contents, because it should normally be a piece of continuous, flowing, paragraphed text, uninterrupted by headings. An essay consists of:
An introduction that contextualises (gives some background information about) the issue and that ‘signposts’ what the essay is going to cover.
The body of the essay, divided into paragraphs that each deal with a different aspect of the issue. Most of the paragraphs in the body of an essay should be linked – one idea should ‘flow’ into another.
A conclusion that summarises the main points made in the essay.
A reference list (or bibliography).
Writing an Executive Summary
Writing an Executive Summary
As part of some business assignments you may be asked to include an executive summary for your work. This will usually form part of a report-style assignment. Your course team should provide guidance on the expected structure and approach for producing your assignment, but these are some general tips on how to produce an executive summary.
What should an executive summary do?
What should an executive summary do?
Provide a brief summary of the report by:
Informing the reader about the subject matter involved.
Stating the key findings or arguments, and the conclusions of the report.
Outlining any major recommendations made by the report.
Mentioning any key limitations of the report.
For some assignments it is expected that an executive summary will be aimed at the management of a company, and so will be written with this in mind.
It is generally written in a consistent tense (i.e. if you begin by saying “this report has...” then keep referring to it in the past tense throughout the executive summary).
What shouldn't an executive summary do?
What shouldn't an executive summary do?
Introduce the report (that is what the introduction is for!)
Explain or explore the topic, findings or conclusions
Talk about the report in a vague way (it should be very specific and focused)
One example of an executive summary
One example of an executive summary
(1) This report discusses the impact of the global economic crisis of 2007 on the British glove-puppet industry, focusing specifically on Happy Hands Ltd. (2) A PESTEL analysis is conducted, and market data is used to examine the implications for the industry, based on identified issues. All calculations and figures are reproduced in the appendices. (3) The results of the analysis suggest that the impact of the crisis on the British glove-puppet industry are comparably less significant than for other British industries, and Happy Hands’ profits have increased despite the downturn, due to a number of key strategic alliances with Chinese puppet distributors.
(4) The report argues that Happy Hands is in a positive financial position, despite the recession. While the entire industry is experiencing longer-term implications of economic and environmental influences, such as the European Glove Puppet directive of 2009, Happy Hands’ relationship with the Beijing Puppet Warehouse has enabled them to outsource their supplies and enjoy greater market freedom.
(5) The recommendations of the report for Happy Hands include:
Continuing to build strategic alliances with Asian puppet manufacturers and distributors
Seeking other overseas markets with less stringent puppet laws
Reducing UK staffing to affordable levels
(6) The report acknowledges that limitations exist within the analysis, which include the fact that some market data is unavailable, and that the implications of the European directive will not be clear until at least 2017.
Key:
(1)Subject matter of report
(2)Methods employed
(3)Findings
(4)Conclusions
(5)Recommendations
(6)Limitations of report
Abstract or Executive Summary?
Abstract or Executive Summary?
There are some key differences between Executive Summaries and Abstracts.
Purpose:
Abstract - Found in academic papers, research articles, or technical reports. It provides a concise overview of the study's aim, methods, results, and conclusion, helping the reader decide whether to read the full document.
Executive Summary - Commonly found in business plans, reports, or proposals. It summarises the key points of a document in a way that a decision-maker, such as an executive, can quickly grasp the main message without reading the entire report.
Length:
Abstract - Typically shorter, around 150-350 words, focusing on essential details. Check the guidance from your course team here.
Executive Summary - Usually longer taking up a page or even more. It highlights not only the main points but also the implications, recommendations, and sometimes action items. Check the guidance from your course team here.
Content:
Abstract - Includes a summary of the study's objectives, methodology, results, and conclusion, without interpretation or recommendations.
Executive Summary - More comprehensive, often including recommendations, conclusions, and action steps. They are often aimed at an audience that may not need technical details but wants to understand the practical outcomes.
Audience:
Abstract - Primarily for academics and researchers who are familiar with the topic and are looking for specific insights. The Abstract gives
Executive Summary - Written for business leaders, stakeholders, or decision-makers who need an actionable summary of the document to guide decisions.
Whilst abstracts focus on summarising research findings, executive summaries focus on giving practical overviews of reports or proposals.
Using Notebook LM a 13 minute conversation has been produced on Abstracts or Executive Summaries: the differences and structure of the Executive Summary
Crafting the Executive Summary_ A Guide for Business Reports.wavLiterature Reviews
Literature Reviews
Literature reviews - video resource
Literature reviews - video resource
What is a literature review?
What is a literature review?
It is a review of existing literature on your chosen subject, not an analysis of the subject itself
It is not a summary of information, facts and quotes from your chosen topic
This section gives generic guidance and tips for producing a literature review. If you are unsure about the requirements of your assignment, check your Moodle site or speak to your course tutors for help. They should also be able to tell you how many pieces of literature you are expected to focus on.
Your literature review should be:
A critical and evaluative account of what has been published on the chosen topic
Focused on the themes and issues which your sources have in common
A summary, synthesis and analysis (see box below) of the arguments that others have put forward in that area
A description and analysis of any gaps that exist in current research (explaining where your research is going to fit in)
Including relevant weaknesses in existing literature (it is expected that you will state negative as well as positive things about the research)
Key words:
Key words:
Summary: a shorter version of the original highlighting the major points
Synthesis: combining two or more items to form something new
Analysis: breaking down a complex topic into parts to gain a better understanding of it.
How do I get started?
How do I get started?
Some top tips for literature reviews
If you are struggling to select a topic, speak to a subject tutor for help
If you have already been given a topic but are trying to find relevant sources, try to identify the key authors in your chosen area
In order to find these key authors, look at existing literature reviews on your topic to see which sources are considered most important, or use the library journal database facilities to find articles on your subject
You can also compare the reference lists of your articles to see if they refer to similar sources. This will give you a clue about the importance of certain authors/sources to your subject
What should I focus on?
How old is the research you are reading? Does this make its findings more or less valid?
What methods have been used in the research you are reading? Do they seem reliable to you?
Did the author(s) do what they said they were going to do? To decide this, see if the conclusion clearly addresses any issues set out in the abstract and introduction
Are there any flaws in reasoning within the literature you are reading? Are there jumps in logic which weaken their argument?
Do the author(s) use theories in their research? Do you feel that these are valid?
Do several writers disagree on the same topic? Why do you think this might be? Make sure you comment on this if it is the case
Where can I go for help with finding sources?
The faculty librarians are there to help you find the literature you need. Meet your librarian.
Organising sources
Organising sources
It is useful to arrange your literature into a table, and to make comments on it that will help you when you come to writing up the literature review.
Research question
"Would banning the use of palm oil save the orangutan species?"
A short fragment from a fictional literature review.
Research question
Would banning the use of palm oil save the orangutan species?
Literature review (sample)
The Sumatran Orangutan Society (n.d.) and World Growth (2011), who both advocate a ban on palm oil production, have found that destruction of Sumatra’s rainforests, for palm oil production, has pushed the Sumatran orangutan to the edge of extinction. World Growth’s research is eight years old and the date of the Sumartran Orangutan Society’s research is unknown. Thus developments in
the industry since 2011 have not been explored, leaving a gap in the research. In addition it is not known what research methods these bodies used or what their background missions are.
Bicknell and Stuebig (2018), who interviewed a large number of farmers in the region and the World Wildlife Fund (2018), who work alongside palm oil producers, found that a ban on the use of palm oil would lead farmers to switch to other crops, to ensure their economic survival, which may cause equal or worse destruction of habitat. Thus these researchers advocate certification of sustainable production. This research is recent and the research methods involve producers of palm oil, which suggests that the findings may be reliable. However, they have not discussed what certification would entail and its possible effects, and this needs to be researched.
Can you see where the literature review:
Compared and contrasted different texts
Discussed methods used within the research, but did not go into too much detail about what happened
Commented on reliability of the literature
Identified gaps in existing research
Conclusions
As with any piece of academic work, it is a good idea to give a short summary or conclusion at the end of your literature review which draws together the ideas you have discussed. You will usually be expected to show:
Which piece/s of work you find most convincing (if you have been asked to compare several pieces of research)
What you feel are the main themes in the research, and what they tell you
Using Notebook LM a 10 minute conversation has been produced on Mastering the Art of the Literature Review
Mastering the Art of the Literature Review.wavUsing Figures and Tables in your work
Using Figures and Tables in your work
What is a figure?
Figures could be photographs, drawings, illustrations, charts, graphs or any other non-textual depiction.
What is a table?
Tables are characterised by row and column structure and are listed separately.
Figures and Tables should serve a purpose rather than be purely illustrative.
Do I need to include a List of Figures and a List of Tables?
This usually depends on your assessment brief, or: no, if your assignment does not have a Contents page.
Yes, if your assignment has a Contents page, which is likely if you are writing a dissertation or other major project.
The List of Tables and Figures will follow on a separate page after the Contents page. It will look like this:
List of Tables and Figures
Tables
Table 1 Demographic Information of Participants
Table 2 Summary of Primary SBM Archetypes Used by Companies
Figures
Figure 1 Trends in Social Media Usage
Figure 2 Your Library Search Engine, Promotional Sketch
How do I incorporate figures and tables into my assignment?
Refer to the figure or table by the figure or table number and tell your reader what to look out for.
“The sketch shown in Figure 2, suggests that Discovery is the main library search engine; notice how many source types are included.”
Position the figure or table after a full paragraph. APA suggests they are aligned with the left margin.
Figure 1
Your Library Search Engine, Promotional Sketch
Figure number or table number in bold sequential numbering.
Double line space
Title of Figure or Table in Italics (description of the image or table, or use the title from the original source).
If a key or legend is included, position it within the borders of the figure or table.
Ensure all information is readable.
Your source goes beneath as a 'note'.
Note. In italics followed by a full stop. In standard typeface.
Add the word 'From' followed by the in-text citation - author, date, page number, if available.
You can also include additional information about the contents, for example, definitions of abbreviations or copyright information.
Note. From Creative Arts, 2018.
The full reference is listed in the Reference List:
Creative Arts. (2018, July 23). What do librarians do in the summer? University of Portsmouth: Liblog. http://www.liblog.port.ac.uk/blog/2018/07/22344/
Table 1
Summary of sources used with researcher commentary
Tables are created in a similar way
Start the numbering from 1.
Note. From Judith Martin, (2021)
For further information on Figures and Tables, use the library advice.
Reflective Writing
Reflective Writing
12 minute video
(You will be taken to Panopto, please use your student ID)
Reflective assignments are different to standard essays. Here we'll cover some key elements for you to consider when writing reflectively.
There are many models of reflection you can use in an assignment. Here we discuss some basic guidance for reflective writing but you should follow any additional guidelines you've been given on your course or module to meet your course requirements.
What is reflective writing?
Reflective writing:
looks back at past experience to perform better in the future
analyses, explores and explains what happened and why
usually incorporates models or theory
uses academic language
considers strengths, weaknesses, anxieties and errors — you can use personal language such as 'I' and 'we' to talk about observations, emotions and feelings
is constructively criticising yourself, an event and others
requires evidence to support what you are saying such as things that have been said or done, their causes and their effects — so you need clear records of the events and your thoughts
Thinking reflectively
Thinking reflectively involves:
Thinking about what was done. Analyse the event by thinking in depth from different perspectives. Use subject theory, reflective models and personal insight. The critical evaluation you make of your and others’ actions should be applied to future events.
Thinking about what happened, what did and didn’t work, and what you think about it.
Critically evaluating what you would do differently in the future and explain why.
Reflective writing structure
Non-academic reflective writing is usually unstructured – such as writing in a personal diary, learning journal, or narrative for design development. You should structure your reflective assignments. There are lots of ways to structure your reflective writing, but we explore one example here.
Reflection usually has the following major components:
Introduction: the event, incident or topic
Description and problematisation of the event
Cause and effect of the critical event — don't write too much description at this stage
Explain and critique what happened, what are you trying to resolve here, what you have learnt and how you would move forwards
Reflective writing example
This example of basic reflective writing can be split into three parts: description, interpretation and outcome. See how the example paragraph is broken into these three sections below the text. Full example text:
Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team. However, the tasks were not seen as equally difficult by all team members. Consequently, the perception of unfairness impacted on our interactions. Social interdependence theory recognises a type of group interaction called “positive interdependence” (Johnson & Johnson, 2008, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2010) and many studies demonstrate that learning can be improved through cooperation (Maughan & Webb, 2010). We did not experience these with the initial task allocation. Nonetheless, we achieved a successful outcome through further negotiation. Therefore, we found that “cooperative learning experiences encourage higher achievement.” (Maughan & Webb, 2010). To improve the process in future, perhaps we could elect a chairperson to help encourage cooperation when tasks are being allocated.
Description
Descriptions tend to be short – they explain what happened and what is being examined. For example:
Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team. However, the tasks were not seen as equally difficult by all team members.
Interpretation
Interpretation can include what is most important, interesting, useful or relevant about the object, event or idea. It could include how it can be explained, such as with theory. For example:
Consequently, the perception of unfairness impacted on our interactions. Social interdependence theory recognises a type of group interaction called “positive interdependence” (Johnson & Johnson, 2008, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2010) and many studies demonstrate that learning can be improved through cooperation (Maughan & Webb, 2010). We did not experience these with the initial task allocation.
Outcome
The outcome should cover what you've learnt from your experience and what it means for your future. For example:
Nonetheless, we achieved a successful outcome through further negotiation. Therefore, we found that “cooperative learning experiences encourage higher achievement.” (Maughan & Webb, 2010). To improve the process in future, perhaps we could elect a chairperson to help encourage cooperation when tasks are being allocated.
Johnson, D., and Johnson, F. (2008). Joining together: group theory and group skills. New York: Pearson.
Maughan, C., and Webb, J. (2010). Small group learning and teaching. Retrieved from http://78.158.56.101/archive/law/resources/teaching-and-learning-practices/groups/index.html.
Theories for Reflective Writing
Theories for Reflective Writing
Reflection is something we do everyday in one form or another. From ‘should I have stayed up and watched that last episode?’ to ‘the presentation went really well, how can I do that again?’
When you are asked to write a reflection, it can be difficult to know where to start, even if it is something you do daily. Being reflective in academic terms means you are asked to look back at an event, working in a group for example, and note what went well, what went wrong and how you could use this information in the future. It is important to reflect on both the positive and negative aspects.
There are many models available to help with reflection, some more in-depth than others, but all covering similar stages. You can use any of these models to help you reflect on your experience.
Jasper (2013) - ERA cycle
This model uses three stages
Experience
Reflection
Action
You start with the experience, something you have done before or something completely new. It can be positive or negative, work related or not. Following the experience you then reflect on what happened, how you felt about it and what happens next. This leads to action; what do you do as a result of the experience, your thoughts and feelings? The cycle then repeats as you reflect on the new experience.
Jasper, M. (2013). Beginning reflective practice. Cengage Textbooks.
Driscoll (2007) - What Model
This model also uses three stages and is similar to Jaspers ERA model above.
What
So what
Now what
What happened? You look back at the experience and describe what happened and how you felt. You then analyse (or reflect) upon the experience to understand 'So what'? Was it significant, positive or negative? You then move on and think carefully about what the experience means to you and what changes (if any) you could make in the future - Now what.
Driscoll, J. (2006). Practising clinical supervision : A reflective approach for healthcare professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Kolb (1984) - Learning Cycle
Kolb’s model has four stages to show how we should learn from our experiences
Concrete experience
Reflective observation
Abstract conceptualisation
Active experimentation
As before you start this model with an experience. You then ask yourself what happened and note anything new or unfamiliar, something you may not have come across before. Based on the reflection, you look at new ideas and work out why this may have happened. The new ideas can then be put into practice, applying them to new situations and starting the cycle again.
Kolb, D. (2014). Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of Learning and Development. (2 ed.). Pearson Education.
Gibbs (1988) - Reflective Cycle
Graham Gibbs model is based on David Kolb’s model above with additional stages
Description
Feelings
Evaluation
Analysis
Conclusion
Action Plan
Gibbs model begins with an outline of the experience you are reflecting on. Unlike other models however, Gibbs model explicitly encourages you to reflect on your feelings; before, during and after the experience. Following on you evaluate what went well and what did not. You can then use this information to analyse and make sense of the experience. The analysis will help you to reach a conclusion about other actions which could have been taken to achieve a different outcome. An action plan is then put together to show what is required next time.
Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing : a guide to teaching and learning methods. FEU.
Schon (1987) - Reflection Model
Schon’s model encourages you to reflect during the event as well as after.
Reflection in Action - you are thinking about what is happening at the moment and making decisions. You then act immediately to benefit the situation.
Reflection on Action - you reflect on the event after it is complete, and consider how you may do things differently next time. You use new information (ideally from theory and study) to process your thoughts and feelings for next time.
You can use these theories to help you reflect on the event or experience and guide you. All reflective theories are circular in action and when you have reflected and acknowledged the changes required, repeat the cycle, reflect on the event and see if any further changes are required.
Do not forget it is always important to show how your reflection and analysis will help you to avoid or maintain an outcome in the future. Without this, your reflection is not complete.
Schon, D. (2017). From technical rationality to reflection-in-action. Taylor and Francis.
Top Tips for Academic Posters
Top Tips for Academic Posters
When producing a poster for an assignment, your assignment guidelines and course tutors will be able to provide specific information about expected requirements. However, there are some key points to bear in mind:
1. Formatting
Before starting your poster, ensure you are clear about its intended size. Common poster sizes are:
If you will be producing your poster using a computer, you can usually set its page size and orientation. For example, in Microsoft PowerPoint 365 (online) you can use the “Slide Size” function to achieve this in the Design menu.
If you have been asked to produce a physical copy of your poster, the University library has A3 colour printers available.
This is important to consider before you start, as the overall format will have a significant impact on the finished poster.
2. Visibility
How far away does your poster need to be visible? Choose fonts, text size and effects carefully, with this in mind.
Body text smaller than 24 pt. is often illegible from a distance, and titles need to be larger than this.
Plain sans serif fonts (such as Arial or Calibri) are easier to read than decorative fonts (such as scripts), and bold text can be used to make headings and key points stand out.
A consistent approach to colours will create a stronger visual theme. The use of one or two colours may be more effective than a multi-coloured approach.
Finally, avoid the temptation to make your poster too full. Leave space where possible.
3. Choice of layout
Like an essay or report, an academic poster needs a clear structure for your reader to follow, with related information grouped together (see example below). Without this, your reader may not know where to start or finish.
Check your assignment guidelines or speak to your tutor for more information about expected layout, as this will depend on your assignment. However, all posters need to be easy to read, and organised logically.
4. Limited word count
A poster presentation will have far fewer words than an essay or report.
A poster is usually a summary of academic ideas, in key points, so large blocks of text should be avoided.
5. Use of images/graphs
Only use images or graphs that support your points and are relevant to the topic and ensure that you cite their sources (if required).
Images need to be clear and visible, so use high-resolution images to prevent blurring.
The golden rule:
Keep the purpose of your academic poster in mind. Your content must be relevant to the assignment brief at all times.
Writing Work Based Assignments
Writing Work Based Assignments
Some assignments involve combining your professional knowledge and experience with your academic writing skills, to examine a particular workplace issue:
Some assignments involve combining your professional knowledge and experience with your academic writing skills, to examine a particular workplace issue:
Ground rules for writing any type of university assignment
Ground rules for writing any type of university assignment
1. Write in a formal, straightforward way
1. Write in a formal, straightforward way
Casual or conversational language is not appropriate for academic writing, for example words like 'stuff' or 'things'.
Avoid sentence fragments, such as ‘Not at all.’ and ‘Which he didn’t.’
Do not use contracted words such as 'isn't', 'don't' or 'couldn't'.
Avoid abbreviations such as ‘e.g.’, ‘i.e.’ and ‘etc.’
Be concise - very academic language and extremely long sentences do not impress markers. Your marker needs to understand what you mean, in as few words as possible.
Avoid using questions in your writing, structure your point as a full sentence.
2. Avoid unnecessary words
2. Avoid unnecessary words
You will not get marks for waffle, or for repeating a point several times when one example will suffice. For example, “in addition it is also necessary” or “the results were outstandingly unusual”
Qualifying adverbs will detract from your work. Examples include very; extremely; quite; absolutely; utterly; completely; totally; rather; really
Avoid clichés and proverbs: For example:“put a cat amongst the pigeons”, “needle in a haystack” or “acid test”
3. Support your views
3. Support your views
Engage objectively with all of your source material. Be critical and impartial.
Your markers are looking for you to put across an argument that is supported by the work of other people.
If you make a statement in your work, you must be prepared for your marker to say ‘can you justify this?’
This does not mean that you cannot put an opinion across, but you must provide evidence to support it
4. Talk about your work, not yourself
4. Talk about your work, not yourself
Academic writing is usually impersonal, so avoid using pronouns which refer to yourself or your reader. These include I, me, my, you, your, we, our, us
You can put the focus on your work instead of yourself. For example, instead of writing “I will argue that...” you could write “This essay will argue that...”
5. Be cautious
5. Be cautious
In business and law, it is almost impossible to prove something absolutely
Somebody else can often argue against our viewpoint using different evidence, so our writing must be cautious
Watch out for words like ‘should’, ‘ought’ and ‘must’
Words like ‘possibly’, ‘likely’, ‘seems’, ‘may’ and ‘could’ are more cautious
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Specific tips for producing work-based assignments
Specific tips for producing work-based assignments
If you keep to the guidelines mentioned here, your work should already be written in a strong and appropriate way. However, there are three extra points to remember when discussing a work-based or organisational issue in your assignment:
1. Your marker is interested in your work context but remember that this is really just the backdrop to the main issue, which is how you apply your academic subject knowledge to the context.
2. When mentioning work-based sources (such as reports or policies) it is essential that you reference these fully. The library referencing website (referencing.port.ac.uk) explains how this can be done.
3. It is tempting to refer to workplace terminology and concepts as if you are writing a report at work. You should assume that your reader will not know what you are talking about! They are an educated non-specialist. If you want to mention organisational terms or context-specific situations, you will need to explain these carefully to your reader.
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