Academic writing

Tip 1: Write in a formal but straightforward way

• Casual or conversational language is not appropriate for academic writing, for example words like 'stuff' or 'things'. 

• Avoid sentence fragments, such as ‘Not at all.’ and ‘Which he didn’t.’

• Do not use contracted words such as 'isn't', 'don't' or 'couldn't'.

• Avoid abbreviations such as ‘e.g.’, ‘i.e.’ and ‘etc.’

• Be concise - very academic language and extremely long sentences do not impress markers. Your marker needs to understand what you mean, in as few words as possible.

• Avoid using questions in your writing, structure your point as a full sentence.

Tip 2: Avoid unnecessary words

• Qualifying adverbs will detract from your work. Examples include very; extremely; quite; absolutely; utterly; completely; totally; rather; really

• You will not get marks for waffle, or for repeating a point several times when one example will suffice

• Watch out for tautology. This involves using different words to say the same thing. For example, “in addition it is also necessary” or “the results were outstandingly unusual”

• Avoid clichés and proverbs (e.g. “put a cat amongst the pigeons”, “needle in a haystack” or “acid test”)

Tip 3: Support your views - Be critical

• Engage objectively with all of your source material. Be critical and impartial.

• Your markers are looking for you to put across an argument that is supported by the work of other people. 

• If you make a statement in your work, you must be prepared for your marker to say ‘can you justify this?’

• This does not mean that you cannot put an opinion across, but you must provide evidence to support it

Tip 4: Be cautious

• In business and law, it is almost impossible to prove something absolutely

• Somebody else can often argue against our viewpoint using different evidence, so our writing must be cautious

• Watch out for words like ‘should’, ‘ought’ and ‘must’

• Words like ‘may’ and ‘could’ are more cautious. 

For more help with this, see Academic Caution

Tip 5: Talk about your work, not yourself

• Academic writing is usually impersonal, so avoid using pronouns which refer to yourself or to your reader

• These include I, me, my, you, your, we, our, us

• Put the focus on your work instead of yourself

• Instead of writing ‘I have found that...’ you might write ‘It has been found that...’

• Instead of writing “I will argue that...” you could write “This essay will argue that...”

For more help on this topic, see Writing in the Third Person

Understanding (Command/Task Words in) your Assignment Brief

Academic words are used in assignment titles and marking criteria to tell you what to do. 

This is a guide to the most common ones and what they are asking from you.

Analyse: Examine in detail identifying the most important points.

Compare: Show how two or more things are similar and the relevance or consequences of these differences. 

Contrast: Lay out two or more arguments to identify the differences. Indicate if and why these differences are important. You may also be asked to indicate which argument is preferable.

Critically discuss: Looking at the arguments for and against something and weighing them up according to their strengths and weaknesses.

Define: Present a precise meaning.

Describe: Give the main characteristics or features of something.

Discuss: Write about the most important aspects, the arguments for and against and the implications of, something.

Evaluate: Assess the importance or value of something. You will usually need to give the evidence for and against.

Examine: ‘Look closely’ at something, thinking and writing about the detail, and questioning it where appropriate.

Explain: Give reasons why something happens or is the way it is.

Justify: Give evidence to support an argument or idea, why decisions of conclusions are made with consideration of objections.

Outline: Give the main points and/or main structure.

State: Clearly give the main features. Be aware, this is not usually in a list or bulleted form!

Summarise: Draw out the main or most important parts of something.

Getting Started with your Assignment

When writing an assignment, you may have a clear idea about how to answer the question and structure your work. However, this is not always the case. We often meet students who say:

“I have done some reading, but how do I actually go about writing my assignment? And how do I decide what to include?”

Step 1: Check what you have been asked to do

• Use our resource on interpreting questions to make sure you are confident about this.

• Read your assignment instructions and check your module handbook for any tips and guidance on producing this piece of work (these sometimes provide recommended structures or frameworks to follow).

Step 2: Do your research

This stage of the process involves finding information on the topic of the assignment. Your lecture and seminar notes are good starting points, as are texts recommended on your unit reading list. 

For tips on how to find useful information, speak to the library staff. 

Step 3: Use your research to come up with ideas for your assignment

• In order to turn your research into a well‐structured assignment, you need to find a way of organising it. One method of doing this is to create a grid to break your research into themes.

• Use one axis to note the source (books, journal articles, websites etc.) and the other axis to record themes that occur. Your grid can be structured like this:

• To begin with you may not be sure which themes to choose, but you will become more confident as you start to read different sources and populate the grid. This process takes time, and you may have to read several sources to work out what the main themes on the topic are.

• Wherever you feel a theme has occurred within a source, you may want to provide a quote or brief summary, and a citation (so you can retrieve the information again easily if you need it).

• Some themes will be more substantial than others, which may help you decide which ones to focus on when writing your assignment.

• You can then structure your work around these themes (e.g. one paragraph per theme), showing what different writers think on each topic (examples, and arguments for and against a point of view).

Once you have started to populate it, the grid might look like this:

Step 4: Use a concept map to set out your assignment plan/ideas

• Diagrams such as concept maps can help you plan out the different parts of your assignment. These involve the use of a central theme in the middle of the diagram, with points and sub‐points branching off.

• If you have a good idea of what is involved, you could use a concept map to plan out your assignment early on in the process (i.e. before step 2). However, if you are not sure where to begin, it may be best to do it after you have done some reading (step 3).

An example of a concept map:

Step 5: Start writing

You will hopefully now have enough ideas to begin writing. If not, get in touch with your course team or Academic Skills Tutors to discuss your planning further. Our resources on structuring an assignment and building an argument will help you with the next stages of the process. Good luck!

For further information try one of our recommended texts:

Cottrell, S. (2019). The study skills handbook (Fifth ed.). Macmillan Education UK. 

Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2022). Essential study skills : the complete guide to success at university (Fifth edition.). SAGE Publications, Inc.  

Structuring your Essay/Assignment

University essays have three key features, an introduction, a main body and a conclusion. 

Good introductions and conclusions help to structure your essay and ensure you receive the highest grades in your assessments. These elements follow a learnable format, so it is worth taking the time to do these well. 

Writing Introductions

For further information try one of our recommended texts:

Cottrell, S. (2019). The study skills handbook (Fifth ed.). Macmillan Education UK. 

Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2022). Essential study skills : the complete guide to success at university (Fifth edition.). SAGE Publications, Inc.  

Writing Conclusions

References:

Ramsay, P, Maier P, & Price G, (2010), Study Skills for Business and Management Students, Pearson Education Ltd, Edinburgh.

Basic Template for an Essay

• This provides an example template for a short essay-style assignment.

• With a word count of 1000 words, you are likely to have space for an introduction, the discussion of a few key themes/points and a conclusion.

• If your word count is longer, you would usually increase the number of themes of discussion.

Simple assignment template

This assignment will [this is a good place to reiterate the assignment title, to show your reader that you will be doing what has been instructed]. While [if relevant, use this as an opportunity to define any important words from the assignment title] is a commonly used term, it is important to clarify its meaning for the purposes of this investigation. The term has been specifically defined as [insert citation here], and this is the definition that will be used to analyse the literature in the light of this question. [This part of your introduction is a good place to explain how your assignment will address the question. Perhaps by saying it will address several key themes, outlining them here]. This assignment will use the arguments of [insert names of key authors/sources/models here], to show [indicate overall direction of argument]. The views of [insert name of one key author/theory with details, if relevant] will be balanced against those of [insert name of one key author/theory with details, if relevant]. This assignment will suggest that [insert main line of argument/hint at overall conclusion here]. 

Firstly, this assignment will consider [insert theme or issue here, showing your reader what the purpose of this paragraph is]. [Introduce your first main point on this topic. Provide evidence for/against the point, citing it appropriately and showing your reasoning clearly. Repeat this process for any subsequent points you wish to make, relating to the theme/issue of this paragraph]. Therefore, [insert linking sentence that explains the relevance of the arguments raised in this paragraph to the assignment title, and helps your reader’s transition to the next paragraph].

In addition/secondly/further to this the issue of [insert theme or issue here, showing your reader what the purpose of this paragraph is] will now be considered. [Introduce your first main point on this topic. Provide evidence for/against the point, citing it appropriately and showing your reasoning clearly. Repeat this process for any subsequent points you wish to make, relating to the theme/issue of this paragraph]. Therefore, [insert linking sentence that explains the relevance of the arguments raised in this paragraph to the assignment title, and helps your reader’s transition to the next paragraph].

[Insert further paragraphs here, as above, if word count allows].

Finally [i.e. as your final paragraph before the conclusion], the issue of [insert theme or issue here, showing your reader what the purpose of this paragraph is] will now be considered. [Introduce your first main point on this topic. Provide evidence for/against the point, citing it appropriately and showing your reasoning clearly. Repeat this process for any subsequent points you wish to make, relating to the theme/issue of this paragraph]. Therefore, [insert linking sentence that explains the relevance of the arguments raised in this paragraph to the assignment title, and helps your reader’s transition to the conclusion].

This assignment has discussed [reiterate the purpose of the assignment, as stated in the introduction]. It has used the work of [reiterate the key authors/theories/models, if relevant]. [One key source/author/theory discussed in your assignment] has suggested that [insert key point]. However, this evidence was [insert summary critique/limitations of this source, if relevant]. Consequently, [state implications of this for your assignment]. In contrast, [another key source/author/theory discussed in your assignment] suggests that [insert summary critique/limitations of this source, if relevant]. However, [insert another author/model/theory/argument discussed in your assignment, with the most persuasive viewpoint, if relevant] suggestion that [insert key point here]. Therefore, this assignment has argued that [answer the question/address the title].

Using Academic Verbs in your Writing

Creating Academic Paragraphs

Why bother?

Paragraphs are often one of the last things you think about when writing your work, but they have the capacity to significantly enhance or reduce your mark, because of the vital function that they perform.

So what do they do?

The main purpose of paragraphs is to help guide your reader (in your case, your marker) through your work, from the beginning to the end of your assignment. 

Your marker will probably be looking at hundreds of scripts, and they want to establish your level of understanding quickly, so they can give you the right mark and then move on to the next piece of work.

Paragraphs are one of the crucial things that help your work to flow, and keep the attention of your marker focused on your ideas and argument.

What does a paragraph look like?

The text on this page is written in separate sentences (like a list of bullet points), rather than paragraphs. This is often the easiest way to get your point across to your reader, but it is not formal enough for an academic assignment.

In contrast, a paragraph is a series of sentences which are connected together to form a coherent whole. There is no rule that says how long your paragraphs should be, but you might expect to see 4-6 paragraphs on an A4 page of writing (take a look at some academic textbooks or journals for reference). Each paragraph usually deals with a different idea or argument.

The last section of this page contains a template for structuring paragraphs. It can be a great way to either plan new work, or to check that existing paragraphs are logical and coherent. Don’t forget, if you have any concerns or worries, get in touch with us (link at the top of the page).

The Topic Sentence

The topic sentence introduces the main points for the paragraph and should move smoothly from the previous paragraph. In this example, we have included three main points for you to use, but you can increase/decrease this depending on your needs. In addition, you can use this part of the paragraph to define any unfamiliar terms which you will be using during the paragraph...

The concluding/transition sentence

The concluding/transition sentence summarises the points you have discussed. Similar words are used to show a direct relationship with the topic sentence. The concluding sentence does not usually introduce any new information. It often has a “link sentence” which moves the discussion on to the next paragraph...

Using PEEL/PEAL to create Academic Paragraphs with Strong Arguments

Point

Introduce the main idea (or argument) of the paragraph.

What to do: Start your paragraph with a clear and concise topic sentence that states the main point you will discuss.

Example: The Human Rights Act 1998 has improved the protection of individual rights within the UK legal system. 

Evidence

Support your point with relevant information, examples or data, from an appropriate source.*

What to do: Provide factual information from credible sources to back up your point. You should use an in-text citation to show where your evidence was taken from and from and list the source in your reference list (APA) or bibliography (OSCOLA).   

Example: The Act incorporates the rights contained in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into UK law, allowing UK courts to hear human rights cases domestically. For example, in the case of R (Daly) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] UKHL 26, the House of Lords ruled that the blanket policy of cell searches violated prisoners' rights to privacy under Article 8 of the ECHR. 

Explanation or Analysis

Explain how the evidence supports your point. 

What to do: Analyse the evidence, showing its relevance and how it substantiates your initial point. Discuss any implications or deeper meanings.

Example: This case demonstrates how the Human Rights Act 1998 enables UK courts to enforce ECHR rights directly, ensuring that individuals can seek remedies for human rights violations without needing to go to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. The ruling in Daly illustrates the judiciary's role in scrutinising executive actions and protecting individual rights, thereby reinforcing the rule of law and promoting justice within the domestic legal framework.

Repeat if needed!!
In a substantial academic paragraph, you may want to add further evidence, followed by an explanation or evidence, as to how this meets the Point of the paragraph.

Example: This case demonstrates how the Human Rights Act 1998 enables UK courts to enforce ECHR rights directly, ensuring that individuals can seek remedies for human rights violations without needing to go to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. The ruling in Daly illustrates the judiciary's role in scrutinising executive actions and protecting individual rights, thereby reinforcing the rule of law and promoting justice within the domestic legal framework.

Link

Connect the paragraph to the overall argument.

What to do: Conclude the paragraph by linking back to the main aim of your written piece. You may also want to set up the next paragraph. This maintains coherence and flow in your writing.

Example: Consequently, the Human Rights Act 1998 not only strengthens individual protections but also enhances the accountability of public authorities. This will be further explored in the context of how the Act influences legislative processes and government policies. 

*Evidence can include:

• Quantitative data

• Qualitative data

• Case studies

• Material from academic texts (books or journals)

• Organisational and business documents

• Material from reports of regulatory or government bodies

• Material from professional or trade journals

• Personal communications

The library is the best place to start looking for evidence.

Getting to your Word Count

These points may sound simple, but they are true! The word limit is not chosen at random. It is there as a guide to help you see whether you have written too much or too little.

Help! I am over my word limit...what can I do?

If you have exceeded your word limit by several thousand words, you may have gone off-topic with your answer, answered the question wrongly, or focused on some areas in too much detail. 

Strategies to reduce your word count

• Proofread your work carefully. Have you duplicated any words, or used three or four words where you could just use one? (Tautology is the repetition of the same idea using different words, e.g. “the recession has had huge and big impacts on the economy”. Have you done this?)

• Can you paraphrase your quotes? Direct quotes are rarely necessary and usually add many words to a piece of work. 

• Look for repetition in your conclusion or the body of your essay. For example, are you repeating the question title unnecessarily? Have you repeated terms and definitions?

• Check that you have structured your information clearly. Are all of your main points in clear, logical paragraphs? If not, you may be repeating information unnecessarily when you are explaining your points to your reader.

• Are you using too many examples? Select just one or two examples to demonstrate a point. Is it always necessary to explain each example in detail?

• Are you using too much 'padding'? For example, if you find yourself setting the scene for an essay by saying “In today’s modern business environment, competition is part of every marketplace”, ask yourself whether this information is really necessary. Will your marker already know this information? Do you have sources for it? Does it help to answer your assignment question?

• Have you repeated facts from a case or scenario unnecessarily? Your marker already knows these facts, and will not need you to explain them again. The marks in your essay will mainly come from the analysis, not the description.

What can I do if I am too far under my word limit?

• If you find that you have too few words, it is useful to think about your structure (do you have a clear introduction and conclusion?) and your use of examples (are you using enough?). Look for advice on this site.

• Double-check the assignment brief and marking criteria carefully. What section will you get the most marks for - have you applied everything expected?

Reflective Essays

Reflective assignments are different to standard essays. Here we'll cover some key elements for you to consider when writing reflectively. 

There are many models of reflection you can use in an assignment. Here we discuss some basic guidance for reflective writing but you should follow any additional guidelines you've been given on your course or module to meet your course requirements.

What is reflective writing?

Reflective writing:

• looks back at past experience to perform better in the future

• analyses, explores and explains what happened and why

• usually incorporates models or theory

• uses academic language

• considers strengths, weaknesses, anxieties and errors — you can use personal language such as 'I' and 'we' to talk about observations, emotions and feelings

• is constructively criticising yourself, an event and others

• requires evidence to support what you are saying such as things that have been said or done, their causes and their effects — so you need clear records of the events and your thoughts

Thinking reflectively

Thinking reflectively involves: 

• Thinking about what was done. Analyse the event by thinking in depth from different perspectives. Use subject theory, reflective models and personal insight. The critical evaluation you make of your and others’ actions should be applied to future events.

• Thinking about what happened, what did and didn’t work, and what you think about it.

• Critically evaluating what you would do differently in the future and explain why.

Reflective writing structure

Non-academic reflective writing is usually unstructured – such as writing in a personal diary, learning journal, or narrative for design development. You should structure your reflective assignments. There are lots of ways to structure your reflective writing, but we explore one example here.

Reflection usually has the following major components:

• Introduction: the event, incident or topic

• Description and problematisation of the event

• Cause and effect of the critical event — don't write too much description at this stage

• Explain and critique what happened, what are you trying to resolve here, what you have learnt and how you would move forwards

Reflective writing example

This example of basic reflective writing can be split into three parts: description, interpretation and outcome. See how the example paragraph is broken into these three sections below the text. Full example text: 

Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team. However, the tasks were not seen as equally difficult by all team members. Consequently, the perception of unfairness impacted on our interactions. Social interdependence theory recognises a type of group interaction called “positive interdependence” (Johnson & Johnson, 2008, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2010) and many studies demonstrate that learning can be improved through cooperation (Maughan & Webb, 2010). We did not experience these with the initial task allocation. Nonetheless, we achieved a successful outcome through further negotiation. Therefore, we found that “cooperative learning experiences encourage higher achievement.” (Maughan & Webb, 2010). To improve the process in future, perhaps we could elect a chairperson to help encourage cooperation when tasks are being allocated.

Description

Descriptions tend to be short – they explain what happened and what is being examined. For example: 

Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team. However, the tasks were not seen as equally difficult by all team members.

Interpretation

Interpretation can include what is most important, interesting, useful or relevant about the object, event or idea. It could include how it can be explained, such as with theory. For example:

Consequently, the perception of unfairness impacted on our interactions. Social interdependence theory recognises a type of group interaction called “positive interdependence” (Johnson & Johnson, 2008, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2010) and many studies demonstrate that learning can be improved through cooperation (Maughan & Webb, 2010). We did not experience these with the initial task allocation.

Outcome

The outcome should cover what you've learnt from your experience and what it means for your future. For example:

Nonetheless, we achieved a successful outcome through further negotiation. Therefore, we found that “cooperative learning experiences encourage higher achievement.” (Maughan & Webb, 2010). To improve the process in future, perhaps we could elect a chairperson to help encourage cooperation when tasks are being allocated.

Johnson, D., and Johnson, F. (2008). Joining together: group theory and group skills.  New York: Pearson. 

Maughan, C., and Webb, J. (2010). Small group learning and teaching. Retrieved from http://78.158.56.101/archive/law/resources/teaching-and-learning-practices/groups/index.html. 

Theories for Reflective Writing

Reflection is something we do everyday in one form or another.  From ‘should I have stayed up and watched that last episode?’ to ‘the presentation went really well, how can I do that again?’

When you are asked to write a reflection, it can be difficult to know where to start, even if it is something you do daily.  Being reflective in academic terms means you are asked to look back at an event, working in a group for example, and note what went well, what went wrong and how you could use this information in the future.  It is important to reflect on both the positive and negative aspects.  

There are many models available to help with reflection, some more in-depth than others, but all covering similar stages. You can use any of these models to help you reflect on your experience.

You start with the experience, something you have done before or something completely new.  It can be positive or negative, work related or not.  Following the experience you then reflect on what happened, how you felt about it and what happens next.  This leads to action; what do you do as a result of the experience, your thoughts and feelings?  The cycle then repeats as you reflect on the new experience.

Jasper, M. (2013). Beginning reflective practice. Cengage Textbooks. 

What happened?  You look back at the experience and describe what happened and how you felt.  You then analyse (or reflect) upon the experience to understand 'So what'? Was it significant, positive or negative?  You then move on and think carefully about what the experience means to you and what changes (if any)  you could make in the future - Now what.

Driscoll, J. (2006). Practising clinical supervision : A reflective approach for healthcare professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences. 

As before you start this model with an experience.  You then ask yourself what happened and note anything new or unfamiliar, something you may not have come across before.  Based on the reflection, you look at new ideas and work out why this may have happened. The new ideas can then be put into practice, applying them to new situations and starting the cycle again.

Kolb, D. (2014). Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of Learning and Development. (2 ed.). Pearson Education. 

Gibbs model begins with an outline of the experience you are reflecting on.  Unlike other models however, Gibbs model explicitly encourages you to reflect on your feelings; before, during and after the experience.  Following on you evaluate what went well and what did not. You can then use this information to analyse and make sense of the experience.  The analysis will help you to reach a conclusion about other actions which could have been taken to achieve a different outcome.  An action plan is then put together to show what is required next time.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing : a guide to teaching and learning methods. FEU. 

You can use these theories to help you reflect on the event or experience and guide you.  All reflective theories are circular in action and when you have reflected and acknowledged the changes required, repeat the cycle, reflect on the event and see if any further changes are required.

Do not forget it is always important to show how your reflection and analysis will help you to avoid or maintain an outcome in the future.  Without this, your reflection is not complete.

Schon, D. (2017). From technical rationality to reflection-in-action. Taylor and Francis.