The senses are olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), somatosensation (sensations associated with the skin and body), audition (hearing), equilibrium (balance), and vision. With the exception of somatosensation, this list represents the special senses, or those systems of the body that are associated with specific organs such as the tongue or eye. Somatosensation belongs to the general senses, which are those sensory structures that are distributed throughout the body and in the walls of various organs. The special senses are all primarily part of the somatic nervous system in that they are consciously perceived through cerebral processes, though some special senses contribute to autonomic function. The general senses can be divided into somatosensation, which is commonly considered touch, but includes tactile, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain perception. The general senses also include the visceral senses, which are separate from the somatic nervous system function in that they do not normally rise to the level of conscious perception.
The cells that transduce sensory stimuli into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system are classified on the basis of structural or functional aspects of the cells. The structural classifications are either based on the anatomy of the cell that is interacting with the stimulus (free nerve endings, encapsulated endings, or specialized receptor cell), or where the cell is located relative to the stimulus (interoceptor, exteroceptor, proprioceptor). Thirdly, the functional classification is based on how the cell transduces the stimulus into a neural signal. Chemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuli and are the basis for olfaction and gustation. Related to chemoreceptors are osmoreceptors and nociceptors for fluid balance and pain reception, respectively. Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli and are the basis for most aspects of somatosensation, as well as being the basis of audition and equilibrium in the inner ear. Thermoreceptors are sensitive to temperature changes, and photoreceptors are sensitive to light energy.
The nerves that convey sensory information from the periphery to the CNS are either spinal nerves, connected to the spinal cord, or cranial nerves, connected to the brain. Spinal nerves have mixed populations of fibers; some are motor fibers and some are sensory. The sensory fibers connect to the spinal cord through the dorsal root, which is attached to the dorsal root ganglion. Sensory information from the body that is conveyed through spinal nerves will project to the opposite side of the brain to be processed by the cerebral cortex. The cranial nerves can be strictly sensory fibers, such as the olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves, or mixed sensory and motor nerves, such as the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. The cranial nerves are connected to the same side of the brain from which the sensory information originates.
alkaloid
substance, usually from a plant source, that is chemically basic with respect to pH and will stimulate bitter receptors
anosmia
loss of the sense of smell; usually the result of physical disruption of the first cranial nerve
gustation
sense of taste
gustatory receptor cells
sensory cells in the taste bud that transduce the chemical stimuli of gustation
odorant molecules
volatile chemicals that bind to receptor proteins in olfactory neurons to stimulate the sense of smell
olfaction
sense of smell
olfactory bulb
central target of the first cranial nerve; located on the ventral surface of the frontal lobe in the cerebrum
olfactory epithelium
region of the nasal epithelium where olfactory neurons are located
olfactory sensory neuron
receptor cell of the olfactory system, sensitive to the chemical stimuli of smell, the axons of which compose the first cranial nerve
papilla
for gustation, a bump-like projection on the surface of the tongue that contains taste buds
taste buds
structures within a papilla on the tongue that contain gustatory receptor cells
umami
taste submodality for sensitivity to the concentration of amino acids; also called the savory sense
Watch this video to learn about Dr. Danielle Reed of the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, PA, who became interested in science at an early age because of her sensory experiences. She recognized that her sense of taste was unique compared with other people she knew. Now, she studies the genetic differences between people and their sensitivities to taste stimuli. In the video, there is a brief image of a person sticking out their tongue, which has been covered with a colored dye. This is how Dr. Reed is able to visualize and count papillae on the surface of the tongue. People fall into two large groups known as “tasters” and “non-tasters” on the basis of the density of papillae on their tongue, which also indicates the number of taste buds. Non-tasters can taste food, but they are not as sensitive to certain tastes, such as bitterness. Dr. Reed discovered that she is a non-taster, which explains why she perceived bitterness differently than other people she knew. Are you very sensitive to tastes? Can you see any similarities among the members of your family?
Answers will vary, but a typical answer might be: I can eat most anything (except mushrooms!), so I don’t think that I’m that sensitive to tastes. My whole family likes eating a variety of foods, so it seems that we all have the same level of sensitivity.
1. Which of these cranial nerves is part of the gustatory system?
A) olfactory
B) trochlear
C) trigeminal
D) facial
D
2. Which submodality of taste is sensitive to the pH of saliva?
A) umami
B) sour
C) bitter
D) sweet
B
1. The sweetener known as stevia can replace glucose in food. What does the molecular similarity of stevia to glucose mean for the gustatory sense?
The stevia molecule is similar to glucose such that it will bind to the glucose receptor in sweet-sensitive taste buds. However, it is not a substrate for the ATP-generating metabolism within cells.