Sometimes, one allele does not dominate over alleles. A good example of this can be seen in the snapdragon flowers.
If flower color in snapdragons followed a normal dominant-recessive patter, you would expect the offspring of a homozygous dominant red snapdragon (RR) and a homozygous recessive white snapdragon (rr) to make only red flowers. However in the case of snapdragons even though the F1 generation has a genotype of Rr its phenotype is pink flowers! In this case theF1 generation is a "blend" of the colors in the P generation.
This is an example of INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE, in which both alleles have a say in the offspring's appearance.
In CODOMINANCE, both alleles express themselves independently in the phenotype.
For example, in cattle, the allele for red hair is co-dominant with the allele for white hair. Cattle with both alleles are called "roan" which gives them a coat that is both red and white.
In some chickens, the allele for black feathers is co-dominant with the allele for white feathers. Heterozygous chickens then appear speckled with black and white feathers.
Genes with more than two alleles are said to have MULTIPLE ALLELES. Blood type, for example, has three alleles: I^A, I^B, and i. I^A codes for blood type A. I^B codes for blood type B. And i codes for blood type O.
Although there are three alleles, only two of them appear in a genotype, because chromosomes are in pairs, not triplets!
In addition, the I^A, I^B, and i have different relations in terms of dominance with each other. I^A and I^B are co-dominant with each other, but i is recessive to both I^A and I^B.
Blood Typing is an Example of Multiple Alleles AND Codominance!
Blood types is a very unique trait in humans! Not only is it an example of multiple alleles it is also an example of co-dominance! The I^A and I^B alleles are co-dominant and can both be expressed at the same time! That's why individuals with type AB blood have booth A-antigens and B-antigens on their red blood cells!
Which Karotype is from a male? Which is from a female?
To analyze our chromosomes scientists photograph cells during mitosis since this is when chromosomes are condensed and easy to see. They then cut out chromosomes from these pictures and group them together in pairs forming a KARYOTYPE.
The number of chromosomes found in a typical human's karyotype is 46. 23 of these chromosomes coming from the father and the other 23 coming from the mother.
Two of these 46 chromosomes are known as SEX CHROMOSOMES. Females have two copies of the large X chromosome. While males have on X and one small Y chromosome.
AUTOSOMES or AUTOSOMAL CHROMOSOMES are the other 44 chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes.
So in a typical human cell, you will find both autosomes and sex chromosomes. 46, XX for females and 46, XY for males.
SEX-LINKED TRAITS are traits determined by genes on the X and Y chromosomes.
A female has two X chromosomes, one from each parent. A male has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
A male's X chromosome comes from his father. Typically the X chromosome carries the X linked trait and the Y chromosome does not.