• Global influence is contested in a number of different economic, environmental and political spheres. Spheres of influence are the global extent of power.
• Following the resource demands of superpowers, tensions can arise over the acquisition of physical resources (Arctic oil and gas) where ownership is disputed and disagreement exists over exploitation. Tensions are not unusual, it could be argued that the recent shifts in patterns of power and the emergence of multiple potential superpowers (USA, China, BRICS) has led to an increasingly unstable geopolitical landscape.
• It is believed the Earth's northernmost Arctic polar region may be home to 30% of the planet's undiscovered natural gas reserves and 13% of its undiscovered oil. The Lomonosov Ridge is a submarine ridge in the Arctic Ocean which is believed to be an extension of Russia's continental shelf. Territorial claim of this ridge is disputed resulting in an ongoing tension. In 2007, the Russians used a submarine to place a Russian flag on the seabed at the North Pole, which inflamed territorial tensions. Countries claim the Arctic as its sphere of influence, although this global influence is contested with undefined ownership.
• Countries seek to have a greater presence in the Arctic especially with global warming, as this makes it increasingly accessible to exploit oil and minerals from the ice. They want these resources for their growing resource consumption and economic growth. Each country can claim up to 200 nautical miles off it's coast, known as an exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Beyond this constraint, everything else is open for claiming with discretion from the UN. Russia, Denmark and Canada have all submitted overlapping claims that are still waiting for approval. Russia has used 'hard' power, holding military exercises and building bases in the Arctic region to send a message to the rest of the world that it will do anything it can to claim the territory as it's own. NATO has been urged to develop a stronger military presence in the area, to battle the heightening military activity of Russia.

• The global system of intellectual property rights can be undermined by counterfeiting, which strains trade relations and TNC investment.
• Intellectual property rights are rights of creations of the mind, falling principally into four main areas: copyright, trademarks, design rights and patents. Tension can arise over intellectual property rights, about who owns a certain invention or work. This is an issue as intellectual property rights enable property to be recognised and financially beneficial to the owner.
• The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is a body of the UN, aiming to provide a balanced and effective international intellectual property system. WIPO ensures that TNCs, individuals and government agencies can protect new innovations, trademarks, artistic works and trade secrets from use by others.
• The importance of intellectual property rights has grown significantly since the 1990s, with the globalisation of technology as well as rapid breakthroughs in new technologies. The rise of emerging nations such as China, has provided a key market for counterfeit goods, one of the most prevalent ways to violate international property rights. Chinese companies are well known for producing counterfeit products such as making copies of the models of Western car companies including BMW, Mercedes Benz and Rolls-Royce. China is accused of being a leading violator of intellectual property rights, leading to heightened tensions.
• Counterfeiting is the process of imitating something, often the making of products in imitation of a genuine article to infringe intellectual property rights. Such products are known as counterfeit products or goods. An estimated 5-10% of world trade is in counterfeit goods. This is thought to cost hundreds of thousands of jobs in places such as the USA and EU, and hundreds of billions in lost revenue for genuine businesses every year producing genuine products.
• A subsequent tension of counterfeiting is the reluctance of TNCs to invest in China and trade relations, knowing that their profits are likely to be reduced by counterfeiting. A lack of action by the Chinese authorities on IP issues might suggest that its government is less likely to cooperate in other international issues. Counterfeiting can deter other nations from participating in trade agreements as one side may believe the other will not 'play by the rules'.

• Political spheres of influence (the dominance of countries) can be contested leading to tensions over territory and physical resources. A previously studied example is Arctic oil and gas, where ownership is disputed and disagreement exists over exploitation. The South and East China Seas is an example of the tensions over territories and physical resources, with similarities to the Arctic tension.
• The contesting of political spheres of influence can in some cases result in open conflict with implications for people and physical environments, such as that in Western Russia/Eastern Europe.

Additional resources:

Read the article about the South and East China Seas. Notice the construction China has undertaken on it's islands. Click here to access the article.

If you need to refresh your knowledge about the South and East China Seas tension, take a look at the attached information pages. These information pages can be accessed at the bottom of this section.

Using the notes on this page and your own knowledge, evaluate the current and potential conflicts between superpowers.