In a globalized and digitized era where social advocacy and activism are on social media, they left diplomacy with no choice but to adapt to these changes hence the increased use of digital diplomacy by various figures to connect and communicate with their citizens and the international community. Similarly, Adesina argues that diplomacy had to adapt to the changing environment and the ability to disseminate information to wider audiences (Adesina, 2017). The 2018 Sudanese revolution showcased a breakthrough in the utilization of social media for the people’s benefit, whether it’s to raise awareness, call for the international community’s attention, engage with prominent figures, announce protest locations, or inform protestors of places congested with the military to avoid. Per the ever-changing technological realm, public e-diplomacy entered the social media sphere to engage with global issues universally and transparently to local and foreign citizens. Bjola stated that digital diplomacy is the adoption of social media for diplomacy, using digital tools for change management, and virtual collaborations (Bjola, 2015).
The case of Sudan illustrates the triggering of digital diplomacy through times of crisis and the need for international negotiations to shed light on the issue at hand. The significance of this type of diplomacy during the Sudanese revolution was that the Sudanese locals and the diaspora community were able to engage with these diplomats by retweeting, quote tweeting, or replying to the tweet; it gives them space to be heard and share their experience or gratitude for amplifying their voices, even if the diplomat does not directly interact with them. The phenomenon of engaging and interactive diplomacy is absent in most other forms of diplomacy since it is the diplomat directing speeches or statements to the citizens and foreign communities without expecting to hear back from them; this changed with social media and the growing use of digital diplomacy. Sotiriu supports this by acknowledging the increased participation of different stakeholders in digital diplomacy and the inclusion of everyday people, who offer insights and influence public opinion, an indicator of the relationship change post-digital diplomacy (Sotiriu, 2015). This paper argues that digital diplomacy during the Sudanese Revolution played a pivotal role in calling for the international community’s attention insofar as it went alongside street protests and social media activism. Digital diplomacy without continuous hybrid activism online and offline from the revolutionaries would have disappeared into the void.
Sudan has been the home of mass protests and revolutions since 1964. Therefore, the 2018 revolution was remarkably exceptional because of certain aspects, which include the determination of the youth, social media activism, and digital diplomacy not only by diplomats and ministries but also celebrities and other members of the international community. Atbara city took the lead in starting local protests on the 19th of December 2018 against the rising prices of bread and fuel (Berridge, 2020). Citizens around the country shared the same struggles and concerns. Their dedication illustrated that it was time to overthrow Omar Al Bashir, who had oppressively ruled the country for thirty years. Gradually, protests spread across the states as social media made the incident known; every city aimed to contribute to this historical moment for the nation, “... the rise of social media activism enabled dissent to spread from regional cities such as Atbara to Khartoum and elsewhere much more speedily.” (Berridge, 2020, p. 164). Therefore, social media at the start of the protests helped disseminate information about when, what, and where the protests took place at the domestic level. The utilization of the platforms by locals, for locals and the diaspora, to stay updated with the protests and the ongoing movement to share information, raise awareness, and release announcements and statements. Significantly, through social media, protesters made rigorous background checks on the armed soldiers, documented congestion places, casualties, and mass arrests, and emphasized the peaceful tactics the civilians are taking to demand change. Additionally, social media was the safe space for these protesters due to the minimal control practiced by the government, which created some uncertainty and unsafety for the regime and its members. The overthrown President called activists ‘Facebook protesters’ and argued that merely a social media campaign would fail to oust his regime from power (Ermont, 2019).
Nevertheless, the regime did believe that social media was a threat to them, since a tool they continuously used during the peak of the protests was to block these social media sites (Ermont, 2019). The virtual reality of social media is a reflection of what is happening on the ground. Therefore, social media alongside on the ground protests maximized the reach of the movement across the world and attracted more prominent figures to ask what is happening in Sudan.
Digital diplomacy, as a relatively recent phenomenon, presents benefits and challenges to its use; how effective is it, and do these social media interactions and activism in one way or another affect their decision-making processes? The main significance of digital diplomacy is that it facilitates and encourages communication between foreign ministries and diplomats, as well as foreign ministries and local populations (Holmes, 2015). This public form of communication is essential for transparency and understanding foreign populations while informing your local citizens. Through it, governments interact with various stakeholders, promote national interests, and enhance cultural understanding. For example, Western embassies effectively use digital diplomacy on Twitter to interact, share personal stories and emotions, spread positivity, or provide any relevant information and articulate opinions to assist in diplomatic and foreign affairs efforts (Strauß et al. 2015). In times of conflict and unrest, it becomes a matter of condemnation and call for peace, as seen in the Sudanese context. Contrary, as Nye explains it, it could be the practice of soft power or smart power. Nye defines soft power as gaining influence through attraction, with no involvement of force or coercion, and its importance for public diplomacy by attracting and drawing attention to its culture, political values, and foreign policy of the state to foreign populations (Nye, 2008). Whereas, smart power encompasses the three ways of power coercion, payment, and attraction, combining hard and soft powers and achieving desired outcomes if used efficiently, especially in public diplomacy (Nye, 2008). Interacting with local populations through social media platforms, especially Twitter, is significant as one will notice their engagement and read their replies, an almost non-existent notion in the traditional form of diplomacy where diplomats travel, attend conferences, and negotiate plans. The citizen, the most affected person in the entire process, is absent from these decision-making processes. Although on social media, they are not part of the decision-making process, they can at least voice their opinions and views, permitting the diplomats and their office to observe and read what the people have to say about the topic. Digital diplomacy minimizes the top-down approach engraved in traditional diplomacy. Through this, information production, dissemination, and preservation are intact to enhance national interests (Holmes, 2015).
On the other hand, digital diplomacy faces several challenges with the spread of social media activism and calls for movements. It has become easy to ‘show support’ or ‘join a cause’ instead of effectively participating and contributing to policy changes, in addition to advocating for a real tangible change. The issue becomes satisfying the public without working to make a difference and pushing for the appropriate policies. “As easily as states can tweet and produce videos, that is, create and disseminate information, they can as quickly find themselves creating problems with the very publics they seek to engage” (Holmes, 2015, p. 20). The challenge of this form of diplomacy is that states must balance between engaging the public and simultaneously promoting their national interests without compromising one or the other. Diplomats, when they share personal moments to grow closer with their audience, blur the line between personal and professional presence online, causing confusion and unprofessionalism for their audience. Nevertheless, that private life aspect plays with their emotions making them more inclined to listen to what they want to say. Therefore, it becomes a matter of precisely and adequately strategizing your social media presence.
Political communication in recent years has often taken place on social media. Thus, mass deception and manipulation or influence and persuasion by diplomats and politicians are very likely to occur on these platforms. There’s an increase in the weaponization of social media platforms by state actors in efforts to influence public opinion and interfere in other country's foreign and domestic efforts, especially when a state is striving for a democratic transition (Antwi-Boateng & Al Mazrouei, 2021). The fundamental concern with such attempts is that they spread misinformation, creating public unrest and chaos, indicating a state-sponsored disinformation campaign. Since these controversial topics take precedence on social media timelines, they undermine other critical issues and engagements between diplomats and the public.
Online and offline grassroots activism in Sudan were the fundamental drivers for delegitimizing the regime and calling for international pressure and attention. According to Malik (2022, p. 1500),
Sudanese youth’s use of social media as connective action networks has expanded the repertoire of collective action tactics used in previous popular revolu-tions, aided in the formation of collective agency, and created spaces for political self-expression at micro-levels outside of formal governance structures in which the youth have lost trust.
Engaging on social media for organizing, communicating, and creating safe political spaces drove the international community, especially state actors, to efficiently use social media to call for peace in Sudan and end the atrocities. Foreign state actors turning to social media meant they could directly engage with Sudanese youth and activists on the ground and in the diaspora, as well as understand their demands and needs in a democratic civilian-led Sudan. Many of the state actors actively used social networking sites to write statements of support, solidarity, or condemnation during the revolution and in an attempt to mobilize actions and impact thoughts to advance and globalize their interests and values, especially with the promotion of democracy, civilian-led, and peaceful Sudanese state. These actors benefited from digital diplomacy to promote good governance, and liberal and democratic pursuance, which is often in their national interest to promote these values.
Digital diplomacy is a branch of public diplomacy that not only diplomats and international leaders are part of but also influential celebrities and non-state actors to engage with the public and beyond their national borders. The fundamental aspect of celebrity public diplomacy is that it's more about global citizenship and mutual solidarity than the traditional political and foreign policy discourses initiated by state diplomats and leaders (Cooper & et al., 2018). The turn away from the standard forms of digital and public diplomacy is significant from time to time because of the concerns the celebrities as non-state actors shed light on, and from them specifically, make the communities heard and understood. After all, it wouldn’t be as if they are working on an agenda for or against that specific community, but rather care and have empathy as global citizens showing transnational solidarity. Additionally, celebrities, through this form of diplomacy, create a bridge between state actors and the intended audiences. Furthermore, the celebrity-driven approach of public diplomacy’s agenda is precisely for humanitarian crises and issues, hence the UN’s Peace and Goodwill Ambassador program (Cooper, 2020).
The young protesters in Sudan during the revolution called for world-famous celebrities to speak and enlighten their audiences about the revolution. They knew that a tweet or a post from these celebrities would cause a social media sensation, and everyone would start asking and wondering about the protests, which is a critical start for them to begin knowing about the cause and the vision of the people. On June 30th, 2019, Rihanna tweeted about the Sudanese revolution. The artist stated, with a picture of a protester wearing the Sudanese flag as a cape, both hands with the peace sign up, and fire and smoke in front of him.
As a reply to the original tweet, Rihanna posted the icon Alaa Salah, a women protester standing on a car reciting a poem and chanting with her index finger raised and women and men around her recording the moment.
The artist has 108.3 million followers, the first tweet received 48.5 thousand retweets, over 1900 quote tweets, and 169.3 thousand likes, while the second tweet received 17 thousand retweets, over 600 quote retweets, and 70.8 thousand likes. The tweet’s engagement was exceptionally high, receiving attention from Sudan’s protesters, diaspora, politicians, youth, and the international community. Significantly, Rihanna did not state a simple ‘Pray for Sudan’ type of tweet that many activists tweeted and believed would engage the public and bring attention to the issue. Alternatively, she provided her audience with little context giving them space to go and research for themselves, as well as provided pictures that spoke volumes to the international and local communities. Significantly, the celebrity highlighted three of the people's demands, peace, justice, and a civilian-led government, and mentioned the atrocities of the June 3rd massacre. In the second tweet, she emphasized that the military must be held accountable for their acts and prays for a safer Sudan. The celebrity puts the situation in a larger context by highlighting the importance of fighting for human rights in Africa; this makes the issue not just a national concern but a regional one that more people need to pay attention to and look at the human rights violations occurring in the continent. Remarkably, Rihanna used the same hashtags used by Sudanese social media activists to highlight on-the-ground updates, struggles, and victories. Through these hashtags, Rihanna’s followers can explore and learn more about the revolution from Sudanese protesters and the diaspora and look at how they can help the movement. Including the common hashtags allows the people to learn more, indicating that the tweet isn’t to state a public statement to show merely social media solidarity, but allows for further engagement for her followers with the Sudanese protesters and thus the significance of the tweet. Rihanna’s efforts highlight her public diplomacy endeavors by focusing on humanitarian crises and using her platform to raise awareness about the Sudanese revolution.
Methodology
The essay will look into three prominent figures, Former U.S. President Donald Trump, French President Emmanuel Macron, and the United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres, to analyze the diplomats' utilization of digital diplomacy, then turn to see how Sudan’s new Prime Minister, at the time, aimed to keep up with digital diplomacy by using it often as per the international community’s expectations after the vast attention given during the protests. It is important to note that the overthrown regime had almost no online presence or engagement with its citizens or foreign populations, as expected, as he mocked ‘facebook protesters.’ The basis of the selection process of the three prominent state actors and one non-state actor was Sudan's aim to re-establish and consolidate ties with them after years of political instability, primarily since their impact could potentially shift Sudan’s economy and image on the international stage. The tweets were chosen by searching their Twitter handle and ‘Sudan,’ to see how many times they engaged with the Sudanese revolution in specific. Only 'Sudan' was chosen to maximize the number of tweets that would show, ‘revolution’ or ‘protests’ were not commonly used by heads of state.
Former U.S. President - Donald Trump
State leaders’ digital diplomacy is often the most awaited at times of crisis for various reasons, including raising awareness, political opinions, foreign relations remarks to facilitate negotiations, and more. Former United States President Donald Trump is an influential figure in world politics and specifically on Twitter based on the number of interactions with followers and number of retweets per tweet (Šimunjak & Caliandro, 2019). Regardless of his controversies, Trump shedding light on Sudan’s political climate, whether it’s the revolution or the transitional period, marks remarkable significance for the nation’s journey to a new civilian-led Sudan because of the international attention they’d potentially gain due to his tweets receiving extensive media coverage, putting more pressure on the military to meet the people’s demands, especially that they would want to enhance relations with the United States in a post-Omar Al Bashir era. On the 19th of October 2020, Donald Trump posted on his official Twitter account
The tweet was during the transitional period of the Sudanese government, a sensitive stage where the Transitional Sovereignty Council aimed to reconstruct the economy, stabilize the political climate, and consolidate relations with other states. The former President, who has 87.4 million followers, received 38.5 thousand retweets, over 8800 quote tweets, and 178.2 thousand likes. The celebratory tweet proposes a positive relationship between Sudan and the U.S. insofar as they pay their debt to and lift from the State Sponsors to Terrorism list, which hinders many economic, political, and social developments in the nation solely because of being part of the list. The use of exclamation marks and capital letters to show the excitement and positivity of the tweet emphasizes its benefit to the United States, and he shares it as a victory for his people but also for the wider audience. Stating that once they deposit the amount, he will lift Sudan from the State Sponsors to Terrorism List is a direct announcement specifically to the Sudanese people to commend them on this news and indicate the steps that will lead Sudan to meet the demands of the people and improve Sudan’s standing on the international stage. Nevertheless, the tweet is a proclamation of victory for Trump and his administration’s foreign policy efforts because they are not only enhancing and fixing relations with Sudan, they will compensate American terror victims, an issue many of his predecessors failed to accomplish while reiterating the U.S.’s role in fighting against terrorism. To America, through this tweet, Trump is promoting a positive image of the country’s transparent and progressive leadership that prioritizes national interests and ensures mutual interests and benefits, which makes him practice smart power. However, the tweet fails to address the roots of the Sudanese economic and political dilemma, such as corruption, human rights violations, and inequality. It states that this is a big step for Sudan to pay this amount without acknowledging the efforts of the protesters and activists to reach this point and what it means for a just and democratic Sudan.
French President - Emmanuel Macron
After two years of the revolution but it still continues at a slower pace with the population’s demands still not met, an influential state leader’s tweet might give hope for the Sudanese that Sudan would go back to the international community. The French President Emmanuel Macron tweeted about Sudan’s political climate on May 17th, 2021, at the International Conference in support of Sudan at the Temporary Grand Palais in Paris, France with the presence of multiple youth advocates and Sudanese leaders from the transitional military-civilian government. The French president tweeted on his official Twitter page with a short video linked of him interacting with Sudanese activists including the celebrated Alaa Salah and Mohamed Naji Alassam, the doctor, activist, and leader of the Sudanese Professional Association (Malik, 2022).
The President hosting a conference in support of Sudan and its transition to a democratically civilian led government was essential to see the support of the international community to the cause. The tweet received 587 retweets, 128 quote tweets, and over 2,500 likes, and the video got over 214.9 thousand views from his 9.2 million followers. The tweet suggests many steps towards a peaceful and democratic Sudan, starting off with the importance of reconstructing the country’s economy and highlighting the burden of the debt in the process of reconstructing. Sudan being in a state of rebuilding its economy, Macron’s determination to cancel the debt provides a relief to the state's economy and allows it to focus on the development of the nation. Secondly, the tweet’s political aspect ensures France's full support for the transition and hopes for a successful democratic and civilian-led government as the people want. However, President Macron fails to identify the atrocities that have taken place in the past in the country or advocate for human rights in a potentially democratic Sudan. Nonetheless, his emphasis on young people that they are the future of tomorrow and inviting youth advocates to share their thoughts in the conference is a fundamental step to amplify the voices of on-the-ground activists beyond political leaders and state leaders. Undoubtedly, there’s an international relations and national interests undertones in the tweet. France’s history of brutal colonization made African state’s previously colonized by France ask for reparations and debt cancellation. Macron pursues efforts to promote French diplomatic vision with Africa through foreign aid and stronger mutual collaboration (Cohen, 2022). Therefore, the debt cancellation is a form of gradually eliminating the cruel history of colonization that made African states economically collapse because of the debt burden, additionally the debt cancellation advocacy could be seen as an effort to strengthen relationships and ties with African countries by showcasing the French as responsible leaders who have other country’s best interests at heart.
UN Secretary General - António Guterres
Non-state actors' activism on social media and practicing digital diplomacy is a non-evitable form of communication with foreign communities and general audiences. Besides mobilizing celebrities, the United Nations (UN) is aware that it needs to operate its aspirations and various causes to a more diverse set of the public beyond certain national boundaries (Cooper, 2020). Non-state actors can now explore the different ways of executing traditional functions and objectives through improved communication methods that will keep a larger audience more informed and updated with their work. The secretary-general of the United Nations, António Guterres, is well aware of the significance of digital diplomacy and how technology is changing the future. He argued that diplomats utilize digital technologies as they allow for better-informed policy decisions and enhance relations between governments and citizens while bridging distances and defeating the challenges of disability, age, and other aspects (UNECE, 2022). It is significant to note that the UN Secretary-General did not tweet about Sudan’s revolution and the atrocities until the 28th of September 2019, a year after Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok, at the time, was sworn in. In that tweet, he discussed how Sudan is evolving at a critical stage with hope and led by the Sudanese and the importance of the international community to aid the people at these sensitive times for peace and development (António Guterres, 2019). However, on the 25th of October 2021, in a more serious and concerned tone, Guterres tweeted
The tweet received over 1400 retweets, 288 quote tweets, and 3553 likes from the Secretary-General’s 2 million followers. It is also Guterres’s most liked and retweeted tweet about Sudan’s political state. The criticality of the tweet relies heavily on the corruption of the military coup. The military dissolved the power-sharing transitional government, declared a state of emergency and turned to more aggressive tactics against the protesters (Abdallah et al., 2021). Guterres’s concerns emphasize that this military coup is against the people of Sudan’s demands and vision for the country, in addition to undermining all the efforts they put into the pro-democracy movement for the previous two years. The last sentence of the tweet, in some way, delegitimizes the military coup and its makers because it reiterates that the United Nations is standing with the nation’s people and the nations’ people are not claiming you, thus, you are not a legitimate power to us. His tweet on the same day of the military coup shows how the Secretary-General uses Twitter to tweet about current world affairs, generating engagement from people since it's a ‘hot topic,’ even though he does not directly interact with the followers or audience. Additionally, Guterres’s high level of engagement on his official Twitter account indicates followers' interest in hearing from the Secretary-General, a representative of the United Nations who possesses UN values, instead of the Organization’s institutional messaging that lacks a personalized aspect, is formal, and seems more like announcements of UN activities and speeches (Summa, 2020). The engagement Guterres receives demonstrates the importance of digital diplomacy in times of crisis to amplify the people’s voices and inform the wider global community.
During the revolution, heavy digitization of the political upheaval was present through social media activism and digital diplomacy from heads of state, celebrities, and non-state actors. The upcoming government had no chance but to also engage with the global and the diaspora audience to showcase updates on the political climate of the country they’ve been following for months and to ensure the adoption of transparency and democratic values in the transitional period. Although the creation of the official account for the former Prime Minister @SudanPMHamdok was in August 2019, he started tweeting on the 24th of September 2019, updating his followers on his attendance at the 74th session of the UN General Assembly; who he met up with and what steps were necessary for Sudan’s future. The first ten tweets reiterated democratic and sustainable values, additionally the peace and stability factors that the new Sudan will follow with the steps taken and initiatives with the different UN agencies’ directors and administrators (Abdalla Hamdok, 2019). These fundamental steps taken by the former Prime Minister within the first month of his office demonstrate his commitment and understanding of social media's contribution to facilitating change and amplifying protesters' demands. His Twitter activity ensures the community that he is speaking to them and working for them by showcasing the various developing international organizations agreements, the work towards reconstructing the economy, and the internal negotiations and works for a smooth transitional power-sharing period.
A little less than seven months since he was appointed, Hamdok's most liked tweet was on March 9, 2020, where he stated
The former Prime Minister tweeted this in both Arabic and English with a picture of himself smiling and another tweet, a picture of himself in his office smiling with the news coverage on the TV behind him. The Arabic version, which appealed to most Sudanese people, gained over 5430 tweets, 1067 quote tweets, and 21 thousand likes from his 717.7 thousand followers. While the English version received much less, appealing more to the international community as a whole, with 1691 retweets, 220 quote tweets, and over 7140 likes.
The context concerns the morning of the 9th of March when a blast occurred near his convoy, labeling it an assassination attempt (Aljazeera, 2019). The incident stirred debate in the country as people were positive Hamdok was doing something that triggered his enemies, especially those anti-revolution and anti-democratic transitions. This tweet by Hamdok creates a bond beyond the normal interactions he had with the citizens and the political and economic initiatives for Sudan. Instead, he is assuring the people that he is safe, still wholly towards a democratic transition for the nation, and such attempts could not and should not hinder the transitional process. Instead, they galvanized his efforts and the government’s commitment.
Abdalla Hamdok’s most liked tweets are all in Arabic and specifically address or talk to the Sudanese people. Digital diplomacy’s goal is for states to engage with foreign audiences but also local ones. From looking at Hamdok’s tweets, the English one addresses more international organizations and nation-states in the international community about foreign relations, potential foreign investments, milestones taken towards Sudan’s democratic transition, and more, instead of interactions that target the civilians of foreign nations. It is understandable because of the sensitive state the country is currently in, and he is trying to appeal to the Sudanese people who have fought for this transition to take place and for a civilian government to form. In all cases, social media and digital diplomacy were critical for Sudan's timely development in the international community, especially with the re-established ties with world powers and international institutions.
The offline protests of the Sudanese revolution were instrumental and pivotal tools for the revolution and the overthrow of Omar Al-Bashir. Therefore, the success of digital diplomacy in pressuring the international community and international organizations was only effective because of the on-the-ground pressure made by the protesters. While many states would use digital diplomacy as a form of 'nation branding,’ tweeting about the political upheaval or the aftermath in Sudan remained significant regardless, because of the amount of engagement it would create. The Twitter hashtags were a product of street updates that celebrities, social media activists, politicians, citizens, and the Sudanese diaspora used to amplify the voice of protesters on the ground and get attention from other communities, which increased visibility and hence pressure on governments to address the atrocities.
Remarkably, there was a reduction in the state's absolute control over policies as they utilized social media more often to keep the public informed (Jayatilaka, 2020). It is a direct result of people’s ability to instantly engage with the tweets, whether through likes, retweets, and replies, allowing them to condemn or condone these policies, and the policymakers are quickly aware of what the general public’s opinion is on this. It emphasizes the importance of transparency and regular updates from heads of state to their citizens and interested foreign public. It was evident during the Hamdok era when he would update the public about his meetings, initiatives, and steps towards a democratic Sudan post-transitional period, in addition to policies with the same vision.
The turn to digital diplomacy and social media activism is a function of democratic transition (Sotiriu, 2015). It is evident now with the Sudanese revolution and in the past, during the Arab Spring. It becomes the public's effort to draw awareness beyond state borders and state-controlled media platforms. Sudan’s commitment to democracy and civilian-led government by utilizing social media to engage diplomats and different stakeholders is a step toward democratic practices and alerting human rights violations.
The most significant aspect of digital diplomacy is its timely conduct in responding to world events. Although the Sudanese political upheaval did not grab the diplomats’, UN officials, and celebrities' attention from day one, as the days passed, more dignitaries were engaging with the cause and used Twitter and other social media accounts to shed light. While many states only condemned the atrocities of Omar Al-Bashir’s regime during the uprising, others only started tweeting about the situation after Hamdok took office, and some activists' interests grew after the #BlueforSudan movement, which was after the Al-Qeyada massacre (Malik, 2022). Therefore, these stakeholders are aware of world events. However, it becomes a matter of prioritization and to what extent human rights violations occurred and promoting democracy as per their foreign policies.
In conclusion, digital diplomacy was critical for the Sudanese revolution in various aspects; by acknowledging the efforts of the offline protesters, the adoption of social media activism and diplomacy only amplified those efforts by highlighting them and stirring conversations about the human rights violations, democracy in Sudan, reconstruction of the economy, and the re-establishment of ties and relations.
The benefits of digital diplomacy were evident in the Sudan case, where prominent leaders such as French President Macron, former U.S. President Trump, and UN Secretary-General Guterres tweeted about the political upheaval. Despite not engaging with the Sudanese people, their ability to reply, retweet, quote tweet, and like their tweets is a form of engagement from the citizen’s side, in addition to the international community’s engagement with the tweets and the awareness raised through them. Additionally, even though there was no direct interaction, as seen with President Macron, digital and offline activists and protesters met with him at the International Conference in support of Sudan, indicating their importance and that they were not unseen. In a different case, Donald Trump prioritized his country’s foreign policy, nation branding, and interests in the tweet stating compensation for terror victims and lifting the African state from the State Sponsors to Terrorism list. Secretary-General Guterres emphasized standing with the Sudanese people against those who hinder a democratic transition. Former Prime Minister of Sudan, Hamdok, efficiently used Twitter to manage change and collaborate virtually, per Holmes's definition of digital diplomacy (Holmes, 2015). Picking up on digital diplomacy after the revolution set the virtual international stage for it was significant because he was now reporting to the local citizens, diaspora, and the international community, including states and international organizations.
Regardless of how slow the Sudanese government was in embracing digital diplomacy, it was beneficial for the state’s diplomatic trends and future, assisting in projecting the nation’s foreign policy and the changes to come for a civilian-led democratic transition.
References
Abdalla Hamdok. @SudanPMHamdok. (2020, March 9). I would like to assure the people of Sudan that I am safe and in good shape. https://twitter.com/SudanPMHamdok/status/1236957491482832898
Abdallah, Y., El Damanhoury, K., Salem, M., Deaton, J., and Fox, K. (2021, 26 October). Abdalla Hamdok, Sudan Prime Minister, arrested and detained in coup | CNN. CNN. Retrieved March 18, 2023, from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/10/25/africa/sudan-military-prime-minister-intl-hnk/index.html
Adesina, O. S. (2017). Foreign policy in an era of digital diplomacy. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), 1297175, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2017.1297175
António Guterres. @antonioguterres. (2021, October 25). I condemn the ongoing military coup in Sudan. Prime Minister Hamdok & all other officials must be released immediately. https://twitter.com/antonioguterres/status/1452620154744020999
Antwi-Boateng, O., & Al Mazrouei, K. A. M. (2021). The challenges of digital diplomacy in the era of Globalization: The case of the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Communication, 4577-4595.
Berridge, W. J. (2020). Briefing: the uprising in Sudan. African Affairs, 119 (474), 164-176.
Bjola, C. (2015). Introduction: Make Sense of Digital Diplomacy. In Bjola, C. & Holmes, M. (Eds), Digital diplomacy: Theory and practice. (pp. 14-32). Routledge.
Holmes, M. (2015). Digital Diplomacy and International Change Management. In Bjola, C. & Holmes, M. (Eds), Digital diplomacy: Theory and practice. (pp. 1-9). Routledge.
Cohen, C. (2022, June 2). Will France’s Africa Policy Hold Up? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/06/02/will-france-s-africa-policy-hold-up-pub-87228
Cooper, A. F., Dobson, H., & Wheeler, M. (2017). Non-western celebrity politics and diplomacy: introduction. Celebrity studies, 8(2), 312-317.
Cooper, A. F. (2020). UN Celebrity-Driven Public Diplomacy: Causes, Critiques, and Trajectories. In Snow, N., & Cull, N. J (Eds.), Routledge handbook of public diplomacy. (pp. 187-194). Routledge.
Donald Trump. @realdonaldtrump. (2020, October 19) GREAT news! New government of Sudan, which is making great progress, agreed to pay $335 MILLION to U.S. terror victims and families. Twitter. https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/1318251010595303424
Emmanuel Macron, @EmmanuelMacron. (2021, May 17). The success of Sudan’s transition depends largely on the reconstruction of its economy, but its debt is a burden. [Video Linked]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/EmmanuelMacron/status/1394394271889960961
Emont, J. (2019, Apr 12). 'Facebook protesters' helped Sudan drive out bashir; protesters in Sudan used social media to organize and VPNs to evade censors. Wall Street Journal (Online). Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/facebook-protesters-helped-sudan-drive-out-bashir/docview/2208192061/se-2?accountid=11091
Jayatilaka, C. (2020). The Effects of Digital Diplomacy on International Relations: Lessons for Sri Lanka. The Lakshman Kadirgamar Institute. https://lki.lk/publication/the-effects-of-digital-diplomacy-on-international-relations-a-lesson-for-sri-lanka/
Malik, S. I. (2022). Sudan’s December revolution of 2018: the ecology of Youth Connective and Collective Activism. Information, Communication & Society, 25(10), 1495-1510.
Nye Jr, J. S. (2008). Public diplomacy and soft power. The annals of the American academy of political and social science, 616(1), 94-109.
Rihanna. @rihanna. (2019, June 30). Military rulers need to be held accountable. Praying for no more killings or abuse today. [Picture linked]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/rihanna/status/1145362583257354240
Rihanna. @rihanna. (2019, June 30). With more protests planned for today, June 30, I send my ❤️ and I pray for the safety of the Sudanese people. [Picture linked]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/rihanna/status/1145362577599299584
Šimunjak, M., & Caliandro, A. (2019). Twiplomacy in the age of Donald Trump: Is the diplomatic code changing? The Information Society, 35(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2018.1542646
Sotiriu, S. (2015). Digital Diplomacy: Between Promises and Reality. In Bjola, C. & Holmes, M. (Eds), Digital diplomacy: Theory and practice. (pp. 14-32). Routledge. (pp. 33-51). Routledge.
Strauss, N & et al. (2015). "Digital diplomacy in GCC countries: Strategic communication of Western embassies on Twitter." Government Information Quarterly 32, no. 4 (2015): 369-379.
Sudan PM Abdalla Hamdok survives assassination attempt. (2020, March 9). Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/9/sudan-pm-abdalla-hamdok-survives-assassination-attempt
Summa, G. (2020). We the People in the Twitter Age: Digital Diplomacy and the Social Legitimacy of the United Nations. Media@ LSE Working Paper Series, Media and Communications.
UNECE. (2022, December 2). We need to build digital diplomacy for a sustainable and inclusive future. UNECE. https://unece.org/media/news/373653