My own definition would be paraphrasing Reiser & Dempsey (2018), who state that instructional design and technology encompasses the analysis of learning and performance problems, and the design , development , implementation , evaluation and management of instructional and non-instructional processes and resources with the purpose to improve learning and performance in a variety of settings, particularly educational institutions, and the workplace.
Early 20th Century The field of instructional design and technology (IDT) has its roots in the early 20th century. Instructional media in the 1920 were mostly films, slides and photographs housed by school museums. The next phase was the audiovisual instruction movement which was promoted by various textbooks by authors such as Hoban, Hoban and Zissman.
World War II The field of instructional design and technology really began to take shape during World War II. During the war, the US military needed to train millions of soldiers quickly and efficiently. This led to the development of new instructional design methods and technologies, such as programmed instruction.
1950s and 1960s After the war, IDT continued to grow and develop. In the 1950s and 1960s, behaviorism was the dominant learning theory, and IDT was heavily influenced by behavioral principles. This led to the development of instructional design models that focused on breaking down learning tasks into small, manageable steps and providing immediate feedback.
1970s and 1980s
In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a shift towards more cognitive-based theories of learning. This led to the development of IDT models that were more focused on the learner's thought processes and how they constructed knowledge.
1990s and 2000s
In the 1990s and 2000s, the rise of technology had a major impact on the field of IDT. Modern technologies, such as computers, the internet, and mobile devices, created new opportunities for designing and delivering instruction. IDT practitioners began to develop new instructional design models and technologies that took advantage of these new possibilities.
Currently
Today, the field of IDT is more diverse and dynamic than ever before. IDT practitioners use a wide range of theories and methods to design and deliver instruction. They also use a variety of technologies to support learning.
Online instruction is the area of most growth in the last fifteen years, from k12 through university. In industry and business online training has been augmented by other recent technologies such as video, satellite, CD-ROM, and mobile devices.
Learning via mobile devices has shown an exponential growth in recent years in all fields of education and training.
The internet is used for interactive learning as it provides multiple platforms for interactions between learners and instructors and learners, such as email, chat room and bulletin boards.
Social media (i.e., blogs, wikis ,YouTube, Twitter) and social networking ( i.e. Facebook and LinkedIn) have become more pervasive in recent years, and they are used to spread information and acquire new skills and knowledge.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors and how they are influenced by the environment. It is based on the idea that all behavior is learned through conditioning, which is the process of pairing a stimulus with a response to create a new association.
“ The goal of instruction for the behaviorist is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus”(Ertmer & Newby, 2013).
The main representative of behaviorism is John B. Watson, who is the father of behaviorism. Watson believed that all human behavior could be explained by stimulus-response relationships. He argued that even complex behaviors, such as language and thought, could be broken down into a series of simple stimulus-response associations.
Other notable scholars of behaviorism include:
● Ivan Pavlov
● Edward Thorndike
● B.F. Skinner
Cognitivism
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on the internal mental processes involved in learning. It emphasizes how learners actively process, store, and retrieve information. This approach views learners as active participants in their own education, rather than passive recipients of knowledge.
“Cognitive theories emphasize making knowledge meaningful and helping learners organize and relate new information to existing knowledge in memory…they address the issue of how information is received , organized , stored , and retrieved by the mind”( Edmer & Newby, 2013).
Significant Practitioners of Cognitivism
● Jean Piaget: Developed the theory of cognitive development, which describes how children's thinking changes as they mature.
● Jerome Bruner: Emphasized the importance of discovery learning and scaffolding, where teachers provide support to help learners gradually gain independence.
● Robert Gagné: Developed the Conditions of Learning theory, which outlines the factors that influence effective learning.
Cognitivism has significantly influenced the field of education, providing a framework for understanding how learners process information and how to design effective learning environments.
Robert Gagné (1918-2005) was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to the fields of educational psychology and instructional design. He is best known for his Conditions of Learning theory, which outlines a series of factors that influence effective learning. Gagné's work has been influential in the development of instructional programs and materials, and it continues to be used by educators today.
Robert Gagné's Conditions of Learning theory is a comprehensive framework for understanding the factors that influence effective learning. It outlines a series of internal and external conditions that must be met in order for learning to occur.
Internal conditions are the learner's own capabilities and characteristics, such as their prior knowledge, motivation, and cognitive skills. These conditions influence how learners perceive, process, and store new information.
External conditions are the factors in the learning environment, such as the instruction, the materials, and the social context. These conditions can either facilitate or hinder learning.
Gagne identified nine events of instruction that can help to create effective learning environments:
1. Gain attention: The learner must be focused on the material before learning can begin.
2. Inform the learners of the objective: The learner must know what they are expected to learn.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning: The learner must connect new information to their existing knowledge.
4. Present the material: The material should be presented in a clear and concise way.
5. Provide guidance for learning: The learner should be given support and feedback as they are learning.
6. Elicit performance: The learner should be given opportunities to practice what they have learned.
7. Provide feedback: The learner should receive feedback on their performance.
8. Assess performance: The learner should be assessed to determine whether they have met the learning objectives.
9. Enhance retention and transfer: The learner should be given strategies for remembering and applying what they have learned.
Gagne's theory has been influential in the field of instructional design, and it has been used to develop a variety of effective instructional programs. It is a valuable tool for understanding the factors that influence learning and for creating effective learning environments.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role learners play in constructing their own knowledge and understanding. It suggests that learners do not passively receive information, but rather actively engage with it, make connections to their existing knowledge, and build their own mental models.
“ Constructivism is a theory that equates learning with creating meaning from experiences.”(Bednar et al., 1991)
Significant practitioners of constructivism:
● John Dewey: Dewey was an American philosopher and educator who emphasized the importance of hands-on learning and experience. He believed that learners learn best by doing and by reflecting on their experiences.
● Lev Vygotsky: Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the theory of social constructivism. He believed that learning is a social process in which learners learn from each other through interaction and collaboration.
Constructivism is a widely used and effective learning theory that can be used to improve teaching and learning in a variety of settings. By understanding the principles of constructivism, educators can create learning environments that encourage learners to actively construct their own knowledge and understanding.
The opportunities offered by digital resources, both to teachers and students, will continue advance learning to close the gap between education and digital technology. Instructional Technology Design is a major area to play a considerable role in closing the gap between traditional education and digital technology. This subject is the topic of my ETEC 5000 paper, link below:
The field of Instructional Design and Technology (IDT) is constantly evolving, adapting to new technologies and learner needs. Here are some key trends shaping IDT today:
Microlearning and Blended Learning: Attention spans are shrinking, and learners are busy. Microlearning, with its focus on delivering short, focused bursts of information, is gaining traction. Blended learning, combining online and offline elements, offers flexibility and caters to diverse learning styles.
Immersive Learning and AR/VR: Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) are opening doors to immersive learning experiences that transport learners to new environments and situations. This is particularly effective for hands-on learning, simulations, and technical skills development.
Gamification and Social Learning: Games are inherently motivating, and gamification elements like badges, points, and leaderboards are being used to engage learners and make learning fun. Social learning, through online communities and collaborative activities, fosters peer-to-peer interaction and knowledge sharing.
Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is making inroads into IDT in various ways, from automated content creation and feedback to intelligent tutoring systems and personalized learning recommendations. However, ethical considerations and human-centered design remain crucial in AI-powered learning.
Data-Driven Design and Decision Making: IDT is becoming more data-driven, with learning analytics tools providing valuable insights into learner performance and engagement. This data is used to inform design decisions, optimize learning experiences, and measure the effectiveness of interventions.
Focus on Equity and Accessibility: IDT practitioners are increasingly aware of the need to design for diverse learners with varying abilities and backgrounds. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles are being incorporated to create inclusive learning environments accessible to all.
The advancement of Informal Learning: Learning is no longer confined to classrooms and formal settings. Informal learning through social media, online communities, and everyday experiences is becoming increasingly important. IDT professionals are exploring ways to support and leverage informal learning for deeper engagement and knowledge acquisition.
As technology continues to evolve and learning needs change, IDT professionals must remain adaptable and embrace innovative approaches to create engaging, effective, and personalized learning experiences for all.
As a math educator, the learning theories that I have been learned during this program have helped me to refine my instructional practice and have equipped me with the skills to differentiate instruction for a variety of learners. As a teacher I use positive reinforcement, such as praise and stickers, to encourage my students to engage in desired behaviors. This is an application of the behaviorist theory and is also named classical conditioning to help students learn new associations. I am actively focused on employing the constructivist theory in my classroom as I employ cooperative learning which involves students working together in small groups to learn and practice new concepts. Learners develop their critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Technology can be used to create interactive learning environments that can help learners to actively construct their own knowledge. For example, simulations, educational games, and online discussion forums can all be used to promote constructivist learning. Inquiry-based learning is a teaching approach that encourages learners to ask questions, investigate problems, and find their own answers. This approach helps learners to develop their critical thinking and critical thinking skills and problem-solving skills.
Association for Educational Communications and Technology [AECT]. (2008). Educational technology: A definition with commentary. Springer Science & Business
Ertmer, P. A. and Newby, T. J. (2013), Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26: 43-71.
Reiser, R.A., & Dempsey, J.V. (2018). Trends and issues in Instructional Design and Technology. (4th ed.). Pearson.Media.