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Borges, Jason. “The Hittite Empire (History).” Cappadocia History, 12 Jan. 2019, www.cappadociahistory.com/post/hittite-empire.
Brooks, Christopher. “Chapter 3: The Bronze Age and the Iron Age.” Colorado.pressbooks.pub, 11 Jan. 2021, colorado.pressbooks.pub/westcivrevised/chapter/chapter-3-the-bronze-age-and-the-iron-age/.
Hays, Jeffrey. “Hittites, Iron, Indo-Europeans and Chariots | Middle East and North Africa — Facts and Details.” Factsanddetails.com, 2023, africame.factsanddetails.com/article/entry-230.html.
Khan Academy. “The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia.” Khan Academy, 2008, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/ancient-egypt-hittites/a/the-hittites.
Khan Academy Staff. “The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia.” Https://Www.oerproject.com/, 2024, www.oerproject.com/en/oer-materials/oer-media/html-articles/origins/unit3/the-hittites-and-ancient-anatolia.
Mitch Williamson , Forschungsmitarbeiter. “THE HITTITES - War History.” War History, 29 May 2019, warhistory.org/@msw/article/the-hittites-2#google_vignette. Accessed 3 Oct. 2025.
Pense, Alan W. “Iron through the Ages.” Materials Characterization, vol. 45, no. 4-5, Oct. 2000, pp. 353–363, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1044-5803(00)00105-4.
Sherry , Bennett. “The Iron Age.” Https://Www.oerproject.com/, 2024, www.oerproject.com/OER-Materials/OER-Media/HTML-Articles/Origins/Unit3/The-Iron-Age/770L.
“The Hittites: Civilization and Empire.” TimeMaps, timemaps.com/civilizations/the-hittites/.
Yahalom-Mack, Dr.Naama. “The History of Iron in Ancient Israel.” Www.thetorah.com, 2021, www.thetorah.com/article/the-history-of-iron-in-ancient-israel.
Cartwright, Mark. “The Phoenicians - Master Mariners.” World History Encyclopedia, 28 Apr. 2016, www.worldhistory.org/article/897/the-phoenicians---master-mariners/. Accessed 8 Oct. 2025.
Cartwright, Mark. “Trade in the Phoenician World.” World History Encyclopedia, 1 Apr. 2016, www.worldhistory.org/article/881/trade-in-the-phoenician-world/. Accessed 8 Oct. 2025.
Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. “The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.) - the Metropolitan Museum of Art.” Metmuseum.org, Oct. 2004, www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-phoenicians-1500-300-b-c. Accessed 8 Oct. 2025.
Elshaikh, Eman . “Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea.” Https://Www.oerproject.com/, 2024, www.oerproject.com/en/oer-materials/oer-media/html-articles/origins/unit3/phoenicians-masters-of-the-sea. Accessed 8 Oct. 2025.
Image 1
AUB: American University of Beirut, http://aub.edu.lb. Accessed 28 October 2025.
“Coin Weight and Historical Metrology.” academia.edu, May 2020, https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/91336604/EWC_5_academia_upload-libre.pdf. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Høyrup, Jens. “Early Mesopotamia.” academia.edu, https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/31044151/2001_k_04_luminy-libre.pdf aub.edu.lb. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Powell, Marvin. “Money in Mesopotamia.” Brill, 1 January 1996, https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/39/3/article-p224_2.xml. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Semenova, Alla. “The origins of money: evaluating chartalist and metallist theories in the context of ancient Greece and Mesopotamia.” Mospace, 2 June 2011, https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/handle/10355/10843. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Cartwright, Mark. “Trade in the Phoenician World.” World History Encyclopedia, 1 April 2016, https://www.worldhistory.org/article/881/trade-in-the-phoenician-world/. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Crocker, Sarah. “The Phoenicians: Who Were They?” Grunge, 25 August 2020, https://www.grunge.com/239956/the-phoenicians-who-were-they/. Accessed 28 October 2025.
De La Pena Olivias, Jose Manual, and Juan Manual Prada Espada. “Mediterranean Ports in Ancient Times.” DeLaPena1994-MedPorts.pdf, https://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/AUTHORS/DeLaPena1994-MedPorts.pdf. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Elshaikh, Eman M., et al. “Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea.” OER Project, https://www.oerproject.com/en/oer-materials/oer-media/html-articles/origins/unit3/phoenicians-masters-of-the-sea. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Pritchard, James B. “Expedition Magazine | The Phoenicians in Their Homeland.” Penn Museum, https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-phoenicians-in-their-homeland/. Accessed 28 October 2025.
Britannica Editors. "Phoenician alphabet". Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Oct. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Phoenician-alphabet. Accessed 17 November 2025.
Clay, Albert T. “The So-Called Fertile Crescent and Desert Bay.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 44, 1924, pp. 186–201. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/593554. Accessed 17 Nov. 2025.
DRUCKER, J. (2024), INVENTING THE ALPHABET: THE TECHNOLOGIES OF KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION. History and Theory., 63: 319-341. https://doi.org/10.1111/hith.12356
Gordon, Cyrus H. “The Accidental Invention of the Phonemic Alphabet.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 29, no. 3, 1970, pp. 193–97. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/543451. Accessed 17 Nov. 2025.
Koller, Aaron. “The Diffusion of the Alphabet in the Second Millennium Bce: On the Movements of Scribal Ideas from Egypt to the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Yemen.” Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections, vol. 20, Dec. 2018, pp. 1–14. EBSCOhost, research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=9a7a52b7-6858-3252-b97d-0945bd846dba.
Millard, Alan. Languages from the World of the Bible. 23 Feb. 2017. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/31653/1/626367.pdf#page=31
Willoughby, Pamela. “The Evolution of the Ancient City: Urban Theory and the Archaeology of the Fertile Crescent.” Canadian Studies in Population, University of Alberta. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/74798939/15177-libre.pdf
Babylon:
No sources
Byblos:
Mark, Joshua J.. "Byblos." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 02 Sep 2009, https://www.worldhistory.org/Byblos/. Web. 20 Nov 2025.
Raddato, Carole. "Byblos, Lebanon." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 13 Feb 2021, https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13421/byblos-lebanon/. Web. 21 Nov 2025.
Kadesh:
Anderson, Erich. “Battle of Kadesh: Clash of the Chariot Armies.” Warfare History Network, Nov. 2016, warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/battle-of-kadesh-clash-of-the-chariot-armies/.
Lebanon:
Raddato, Carole. "Byblos, Lebanon." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 13 Feb 2021, https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13421/byblos-lebanon/. Web. 21 Nov 2025.
Lydia:
Coins and Co., Educational. “Educational Coin Company | Ancient Coins Dealer Online | Publications.” Mesopotamian Coins, Vcoins, 1998, www.vcoins.com/en/stores/educational_coin_company-55/ancient-coins/publications-42483.aspx.
“Lydian Electrum,” Hallie Ford Museum of Art Exhibits, accessed November 20, 2025, https://library.willamette.edu/hfma/omeka/items/show/14.
Mazarron Shipwreck:
Czachor, Emily Mae. “Ancient Shipwreck Dating Back at Least 2,600 Years Is Raised from Waters off Spain.” Cbsnews.com, CBS News, 24 Dec. 2024, www.cbsnews.com/news/ancient-shipwreck-mazarron-ii-2600-years-old-spain/.
Hutchins, Rob. “Archaeologists Raise 2,600-Year-Old Ancient Phoenician Shipwreck - Oceanographic.” Oceanographic, 3 Jan. 2025, oceanographicmagazine.com/news/archaeologists-raise-2600-year-old-ancient-phoenician-shipwreck/.
Steinmeyer, Nathan. “Phoenician Ship Raised from the Seafloor.” Biblical Archaeology Society, 30 Oct. 2024, www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/phoenician-ship-raised-from-the-seafloor/.
Mesopotamia:
Frye, Richard N., Edzard, Dietz O., Soden, Wolfram Th. von. "history of Mesopotamia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 Oct. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Mesopotamia-historical-region-Asia. Accessed 20 November 2025.
Sidon:
romeartlover. “Sidon a Town in Lebanon.” Romeartlover.it, 2021, www.romeartlover.it/Sidon.html. Accessed 25 Nov. 2025.
Britannica Editors. "Sidon". Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Nov. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Sidon. Accessed 25 November 2025.
Sumer:
History.com Editors. “Sumer - Ancient, Map & Civilization | HISTORY.” HISTORY, 7 Dec. 2017, www.history.com/articles/sumer. Accessed 25 November 2025.
“Sumer, an Introduction – Smarthistory.” Smarthistory.org, smarthistory.org/sumerian-art-an-introduction/.
Accessed 25 November 2025.
Tigris River:
Owen, Lewis, Lloyd, Seton H.F., Gibson, McGuire. "Tigris-Euphrates river system". Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 Oct. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Tigris-Euphrates-river-system. Accessed 20 November 2025.
Tyre:
"Journal of Cultural Heritage.” Under the city centre, the ancient harbour. Tyre and Sidon: heritages to preserve, Nick Marriner, June 2005,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1296207405000397#:~:text=rights%20and%20content-,Abstract,of%20these%20unique%20cultural%20heritages. Accessed 20 November 2025.
“Tyre summary.” Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/summary/Tyre. Accessed 20 November 2025.
Warhistoryonline.com, 2025, www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/great-sieges-ancient-world-tyre.html.
Uruk:
Neziralp. “Uruk: The Birthplace of Civilization and Humanity’s First City.” Medium, Write A Catalyst, 12 July 2024, medium.com/write-a-catalyst/uruk-the-birthplace-of-civilization-and-humanitys-first-city-a9be98d4d146.