Myths of Plastic Recycling

Plastic discarded by recycling factories in Indonesia. Photo from Fully Handoko/Ecoton.

The public perception of plastic recycling is unfortunately deeply mismatched with the reality of the fate of plastic. Though single-stream curbside recycling appears to make the process easier than ever for consumers, the problem is that plastic recycling is not practical or feasible in the long run.

How much plastic is actually getting recycled?

Not much, as it turns out. Of the 7 different “chasing arrows” symbol categories, only two are regularly recycled. But the real problem is that plastic just isn’t very recyclable, it’s just that plastic companies want you to think it is.

Above, types of plastic and their recyclability are shown. This image was found on westerndisposalservices.com.

A photo shows how plastic accumulates in landfills. This photo was taken by Abdul Raheem Mohamed.

What happens to plastic when it’s “recycled”?

Plastic types 1 and 2, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high density polyethylene (HDPE) respectively, are recycled. Type 1 (PET) is a clear plastic used in drink bottles like water and soda, and type 2 (HDPE) is an opaque plastic used in packaging. The other types, 3-7, usually end up in landfills—even the “biodegradable” stuff. Plastic that is dirty (like plastic that still has food residue on it) is thrown away. “If we don’t get it clean, we’re not going to be able to market it, and if we can’t market it unfortunately it’s going to go to the landfill,” Garry Penning, a spokesperson for Oregon-based recycling company Rogue, told the New York Times in 2018.

In 2017, a landmark study came out in Science Advances—a peer reviewed journal published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science—that looked at the fate of plastics that are produced globally. Perhaps this line best communicates their findings: “Recycling delays, rather than avoids, final disposal.” They estimated that 30% of plastics ever produced were currently in use. Of the plastic waste produced in the 65 years between 1950 and 2015, about 6300 million metric tons, only about 9% has been recycled. About 12% of it was incinerated—which is the only way to permanently destroy plastic, though the emissions, potentially harmful, from this process vary in their environmental and health impacts based on the type of incinerator. 60% of all plastics produced ended up in landfills or littering natural environments. Eventually, they can enter the waterways degrade into microplastics–which are now virtually everywhere on earth.

From 1950-2015, the production and fate of plastics globally, in million metric tons. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. From Geyer et al, 2017, Science Advances.

Where does it all go?

Cory Howell illustrates the degradation of plastic polymers with recycling for the National Geographic blog.

The problem is twofold. First, most plastic isn’t sustainably recyclable, only being able to be reused once or twice, and it degrades with recycling—with the polymers that make it up getting shorter each time. Second, it’s really not cost-effective to recycle it. Simply put, making new plastic is cheaper than sorting and processing plastic for recycling, which will itself have diminishing returns.

In the 1990s, China began importing foreign plastic waste when they found that it could be used for profit. In 2017, China permanently banned the import of nonindustrial plastic waste—a policy called National Sword—after they became overwhelmed by the amount. In 2019, 187 countries signed a treaty (the Basel Convention) that allows countries to ban the import of plastic trash. The U.S. wasn’t one of the signers.

Containers of plastic waste being photographed before being shipped back to their countries of origin in Port Klang, Malaysia. Photo taken by Mohd Rasfan/AFP/Getty Images.

After China’s ban, U.S. exports of plastic did not stop—they simply went to poorer countries, many of which could not effectively manage their own plastic waste, such as Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia. Once these countries became overwhelmed and fed up, the U.S. began exporting to other Southeast Asian countries as well as African countries that have not historically processed U.S. plastic waste. Many of the opportunistic companies that have popped up to ostensibly recycle the plastic are not doing it in an environmentally safe way.

Steve Wong, a Hong Kong businessman who facilitates sale of recyclables to international buyers, told The Guardian in 2019, “’In our industry, if you do it properly, you save the environment,’ Wong said. ‘If you do it improperly, you destroy the environment.’” Locals near plants that process recycling in these countries are plagued with illness and toxicity in their water systems and crops. Many were not even aware that the plastic literally covering their communities was imported at all. "'I want to tell people in US this: recycle in your own yard,'" said Eser Çağlayan, a Turkish scrap-picker, to The Guardian. “'Don’t bring down our income and put us all in danger of hunger.'’’

Total US exports of plastic in a timeline per month from 2017-2019, reported as monthly averages in kilograms. Graphic by The Guardian using US Census Bureau data.

A report from environmental group GAIA in 2019 stresses the long-term negative impacts on environment and health of poor plastic recycling and waste management, and urges several top-down reforms to plastic production, use, and disposal. Overall, they recommend a United Nations collective action to limit production and export, bans on importing waste, and the need for exporting countries to manage their own waste domestically. They also call for broad-scale redesigns of packaging and products to reduce the amount of single-use plastic, noting that reduction or cessation of plastic production is the key to stopping plastic pollution.

So… why do we think plastic recycling is viable?

Because gas and oil companies want you to. These are the companies that make the plastic. And their strategy is to make you feel like buying plastic isn’t harming the environment, so you’ll go on buying it. What’s especially heinous about this is that companies have known since the early 1970s that recycling plastic is an inviable strategy. In a 1974 speech, one industry insider wrote, "There is serious doubt that [recycling plastic] can ever be made viable on an economic basis." This was known for decades.

In the early 1990s, oil and plastic companies were faced with a dilemma—the image of plastic was in crisis in the public eye as waste accumulated. The plastics industry began spending $50 million a year in advertising to rehabilitate the public perception. Here is where the myth was launched—in the ads proclaiming the benefits of plastic, and the funding of recycling projects designed to make the public feel as if they were participating in a sustainable practice, things like recycling centers, nonprofits, and sorting machines. However, few of these facilities lasted longer than a few years. A plan to implement plastic recycling in national parks, funded by Dow and Huntsman, only reached 7 parks out of more than 400 before funding was cut. Despite this, the public perception began to change.

Finally, the coup de grace came in the early 1990s. The universal symbol for recycling, the “chasing arrows,” started showing up on more products—a lot more. Categories 3 through 7 denote kinds of plastic of mixed types that can’t be practically reused—essentially flooding the recycling centers with trash. More than anything else, it is a marketing tool.

On the rise are new waves of recycling companies. These companies claim to be able to sort through plastic types effectively, and to be able to handle the more difficult types of plastic to recycle. But it doesn’t seem to be going well—many are losing money and closing down, or operating at far less than their touted capabilities. One such company, Renewlogy in Boise, Idaho, claims to be fully operational, but locals say the plant has been essentially nonfunctional for months.

The photo above shows Renewlogy's plant in Boise, Idaho. By George Frey for Reuters.

Recyclables piled up in the back lot. Inspectors say the plant has been stripped of equipment and is not in operation. Photo by George Frey for Reuters.

Where do we go from here?

Figure by E. Otwell of data from Tournier et al, that shows a modification ("tweaked") of a natural enzyme breaks down more plastic than the natural version–up to 80% from 50%.

It’s not all bad news. Many cities and states are discouraging the use of plastic bags, and passing legislation that introduces stricter fines for pollutants. Furthermore, nature is already learning to adapt—a recent report from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences shows that certain microbes have developed a two-enzyme system by which PET plastics can be broken down and used as carbon and energy sources. This could be developed into more broad scale applications.

What can I do?

On a day-to-day basis, plastic use is inescapable. Plastic is undeniably an integral part of the modern world’s development, making more goods available and transportable. Everyone has a plastic bag full of plastic bags in their house. The best we can do on an individual basis is to be conscious of our plastic consumption and use. If glass or metal can be used as a container instead, they are better choices, as they can be recycled indefinitely. Much plastic is designed to be single-use, and enters landfills after this phase. If you can, reuse plastic beyond its intended use phase. Avoid single-use plastics if possible.

Ultimately, the most effective solutions are to stop producing plastic, and to find ways to safely destroy that which already exists. This will take concentrated efforts of both political lobbying and research into how we can effectively and safely destroy plastic. Start local and find out where your recycling goes, and if your city can implement any incentives to move away from plastic use.

Sources and Further Reading

The following is a list of works that directly informed or are related to this piece. It is comprised of books and academic peer-reviewed journal articles, popular science articles and news stories, and information from environmental organizations. In the case of popular articles intended for the public, remember to always verify the source of information.

Myths of Plastic Recycling

How much plastic is actually getting recycled?

What happens to plastic when it’s “recycled”?

Where does it all go?

So… why do we think plastic recycling is viable?

Where do we go from here?

What can I do?

Sources and Further Reading

Environmental Justice

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