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INTRODUCTION
Physics, and natural science in general, is a reasonable enterprise based on valid experimental evidence, criticism, and rational discussion (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2019). Physics allows the understanding of the physical world and it is "experiment" that provides evidence or proof for this knowledge. Physics uses experiments in many different ways. One of its key functions is to test theories or hypotheses and serve as the foundation for scientific knowledge. It can also call for a new theory by demonstrating the falsity of an established theory or by revealing a novel phenomena that requires an explanation. An experiment might offer suggestions about a theory's structure or mathematical form as well as proof that the entities mentioned in our ideas actually exist.
Physics, and natural science in general, is a reasonable enterprise based on valid experimental evidence, criticism, and rational discussion (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2019). Physics allows the understanding of the physical world and it is "experiment" that provides evidence or proof for this knowledge. Physics uses experiments in many different ways. One of its key functions is to test theories or hypotheses and serve as the foundation for scientific knowledge. It can also call for a new theory by demonstrating the falsity of an established theory or by revealing a novel phenomena that requires an explanation. An experiment might offer suggestions about a theory's structure or mathematical form as well as proof that the entities mentioned in our ideas actually exist.
OVERVIEW
As stated above, the first course learning outcome is "perform experiments that relate and apply theories and principles of physics." The following contents will introduce the different experiments conducted in the course while highlighting the theories and principles of physics applied in each experiment.
As stated above, the first course learning outcome is "perform experiments that relate and apply theories and principles of physics." The following contents will introduce the different experiments conducted in the course while highlighting the theories and principles of physics applied in each experiment.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT #1: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENTS
The three fundamental quantities in mechanics are length, mass, and time. The other quantities are expressed in terms of these three such as the quantities that describe the motion of an object. Scalar and vector quantities are used to describe the motion of an object. Scalar quantities are the physical quantities that have magnitude only such as distance, speed, mass, and density; whereas, vector quantities are the physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force. Scalar exists in one dimension only while vector can exist in one, two, or even three dimensions. Henceforth, vector quantities are significant in the study of motion as stated in the image.
The three fundamental quantities in mechanics are length, mass, and time. The other quantities are expressed in terms of these three such as the quantities that describe the motion of an object. Scalar and vector quantities are used to describe the motion of an object. Scalar quantities are the physical quantities that have magnitude only such as distance, speed, mass, and density; whereas, vector quantities are the physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force. Scalar exists in one dimension only while vector can exist in one, two, or even three dimensions. Henceforth, vector quantities are significant in the study of motion as stated in the image.
Meanwhile, the first laboratory experiment is mainly focused on vectors. In one-dimensional or straight-line motion, a simple plus or minus sign can be used to indicate a vector's direction. Positive or plus motion is typically seen to be forward, to the right, or upward, while negative or minus motion is generally thought to be backward, to the left, or downward. Furthermore, in two dimensions, a vector describes motion in two perpendicular directions, such as vertical and horizontal. For vertical and horizontal motion, each vector is made up of vertical and horizontal components. For instance, the Vector A shown on the image in the right has vertical component represented by the blue arrow and horizontal component represented by the red arrow. The direction is represented by the theta (θ) or simply the angle that the vector makes with the horizontal.
A resultant is the vector sum of two or more vectors (physicsclassroom.com). In other words, it is the result of adding two or more vectors together. If displacement vectors A, B, and C are added together, the result will be vector R as shown in the diagram on the right. Vector R can be determined by the use of an accurately drawn, scaled, vector addition diagram. This method is also called the graphical or polygon method which literally needs a protractor and a ruler to graphically calculate the resultant. Another method is analytical or polygon method which involves calculations in determining the magnitude and direction of the resultant. These two methods were utilized in the laboratory experiment to calculate the resultant displacement of the vectors and compared which method is better than the other. For instance, we physically created vectors with different displacements and measurements. The actual measurement of the resultant displacement will be the true value to which the results of the two methods will be compared.
Salazar_BSCE2B_LR#1_Measurements and Vectors.pdf
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT #2: FORCE TABLE
The image on the right is a force table. As shown, it is a circular platform supported by a tripod stand. The tripod's three legs each include a leveling screw that may be adjusted in order to level the circular platform. The surface of the spherical platform is marked with angle measurements in degrees. Anywhere along the platform's edge, two or more pulleys may be clamped. The number of pulleys to be used will depend on the number of vectors to be balanced. For example, you need to balance three vectors, then three pulleys are to be used, and so does three strings. These strings are attached to a central ring and then each string is passed over a pulley. Hanging masses are then attached to the other end of these strings as can be seen in the photo. These masses will produce a tension force in the string. When, the forces are balanced, the center ring will be positioned at the exact center of the table. Note that it is unbalanced once the center ring rests against one side of the central post. The force due to each hanging mass will simply be mg or the mass times the acceleration due to gravity.
The image on the right is a force table. As shown, it is a circular platform supported by a tripod stand. The tripod's three legs each include a leveling screw that may be adjusted in order to level the circular platform. The surface of the spherical platform is marked with angle measurements in degrees. Anywhere along the platform's edge, two or more pulleys may be clamped. The number of pulleys to be used will depend on the number of vectors to be balanced. For example, you need to balance three vectors, then three pulleys are to be used, and so does three strings. These strings are attached to a central ring and then each string is passed over a pulley. Hanging masses are then attached to the other end of these strings as can be seen in the photo. These masses will produce a tension force in the string. When, the forces are balanced, the center ring will be positioned at the exact center of the table. Note that it is unbalanced once the center ring rests against one side of the central post. The force due to each hanging mass will simply be mg or the mass times the acceleration due to gravity.
It is known that vector quantities are quantities that possess both magnitude and direction. A force has both magnitude and direction, therefore, a force is a vector quantity. Force is equal to mass times acceleration due to gravity. However, in this laboratory experiment, we ignored the acceleration due to gravity since it is constant and common to all vectors. Henceforth, the force is equal to the mass. Its unit will be in terms of grams (g) instead of Newton (N). Furthermore, resultant is defined as the vector sum of two or more vectors. If we had resultant displacement in the previous laboratory experiment, we have resultant force in this one. This resultant force is the single force that represents the vector sum of two or more forces.
When the different forces acting on an object is balanced, it is considered to be in equilibrium. The balancing of force in a system occurs when leftward force balances the rightward force and upward force balances the downward force. But when the forces are unbalanced, there must be a force to be added to balance the system. This force is called the equilibrant. The equilibrant of a set of forces is the force needed to keep the system in equilibrium. It is equal in magnitude with the resultant force but with opposite direction as shown in the figure. The red vector is the equilibrant while the blue one is the resultant. In this experiment, the goal is to find the equilibrant of two known forces using the force table. Shown below is the laboratory report for this experiment as well as the force tables, one showing the two known forces, and the other one shown with an equilibrant.
Salazar_BSCE2B_LR#2_Force Table.pdf
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT #3: MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
Motion in one dimension entails motion along a straight line or in a single direction such as an object moving forward/backward or, alternatively up/down. Some examples of one-dimensional motion include a person driving down a straight road, a kid jogging on a straight track, or a coin being tossed into the air and watching it fall. As previously discussed in LR#1, scalar and vector quantities are used to describe the motion of an object. There are four quantities that are mainly used in evaluating the motion of objects, namely, time, displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Time is a scalar quantity while displacement, velocity, and acceleration are vector quantities.
Motion in one dimension entails motion along a straight line or in a single direction such as an object moving forward/backward or, alternatively up/down. Some examples of one-dimensional motion include a person driving down a straight road, a kid jogging on a straight track, or a coin being tossed into the air and watching it fall. As previously discussed in LR#1, scalar and vector quantities are used to describe the motion of an object. There are four quantities that are mainly used in evaluating the motion of objects, namely, time, displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Time is a scalar quantity while displacement, velocity, and acceleration are vector quantities.
Time is defined as the change or the interval at which the change occurs. After all, it is impossible to know that time has passed unless something changes. Displacement is simply defined as the change in position of an object. Hence, its formula is equal to the final position minus the initial position. Meanwhile, velocity is defined as the rate of change of the object's position with respect to a frame of reference or time. In other words, it is equal to the displacement divided by the elapsed time or simply v = d/t. Consequently, when talking about the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, it pertains to acceleration.
Kinematics is the branch of physics that defines the motion of objects with respect to space or time, ignoring the cause of that motion. Kinematic equations are a set of equations that can derive an unknown quantity given that the other quantities are provided. Shown on the left is the four basic kinematic equations. Note that v denotes the final velocity, v0 pertains to the initial velocity, a is the acceleration, t means time, and Δx is the displacement. Some of these kinematic equations will be used in the laboratory experiment such as the number 1 and number 3. The relationship between velocity and acceleration was explored in the first part of the activity while on the second part was solving for the height using the concept of the freely falling objects. For instance, the images shown below reveal the two objects dropped from the second floor of the CEA building. I recorded the time that these objects used before touching the ground and used this time as well as the acceleration due to gravity to solve for the height. Also shown below is the laboratory report for the experiment.
Salazar_BSCE2B_LR#3_Motion In One Dimension.pdf
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT #4: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
Motion in two dimensions is the motion that takes place in two different directions or coordinates simultaneously. Two-dimensional motion is the study of movement in two directions, including the study of motion along a curved path, such as projectile and circular motion. An example of two-dimensional motion (2D motion) is a clown shot out of a cannon or a volleyball set in a volleyball game. These examples denote two-dimensional projectile motion in which there is both a vertical and a horizontal component of the motion. The most important fact to remember is that motion along perpendicular axes are independent, hence should be analyzed separately. The key to analyzing two-dimensional projectile motion is to break it into two motions, one along the horizontal axis and the other along the vertical. In other words, treat each dimension of two-dimensional motion independently. Further, we must deal with velocity, acceleration, and displacement when describing motion.
Motion in two dimensions is the motion that takes place in two different directions or coordinates simultaneously. Two-dimensional motion is the study of movement in two directions, including the study of motion along a curved path, such as projectile and circular motion. An example of two-dimensional motion (2D motion) is a clown shot out of a cannon or a volleyball set in a volleyball game. These examples denote two-dimensional projectile motion in which there is both a vertical and a horizontal component of the motion. The most important fact to remember is that motion along perpendicular axes are independent, hence should be analyzed separately. The key to analyzing two-dimensional projectile motion is to break it into two motions, one along the horizontal axis and the other along the vertical. In other words, treat each dimension of two-dimensional motion independently. Further, we must deal with velocity, acceleration, and displacement when describing motion.
Shown on the right is the kinematic equations used in two-dimensional motion. Note that it is only applicable for the vertical component since the variable y always appear in every formula. When dealing with the horizontal component, just change the y (vertical distance) to x which denotes the horizontal distance, the v0y (initial vertical velocity) to v0x which denotes the initial horizontal velocity, the vy (final vertical velocity) to vx which denotes the final horizontal velocity, and the ay (vertical acceleration) to ax which denotes horizontal acceleration. Note that in projectile motion, the vertical acceleration is -g or -9.8m/s2 while the horizontal acceleration is equal to zero. Furthermore, v0x is equal to v0cosθ while v0y is equal to v0sinθ. These formulas were utilized to derive the formula needed to solve the muzzle velocity as well as the expected horizontal distance when the projectile launcher is inclined at an angle. Shown below are the formulas derived and used in the computations for this laboratory experiment. In this experiment, we used a projectile launcher, determined its initial muzzle velocity at zero degree and use this velocity to predict the expected distance where the ball will land when the launcher is inclined at a certain angle.
Muzzle Velocity
Expected Distance
Salazar_BSCE2B_LR#4_Motion In Two Dimensions.pdf
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT #5: REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. We are able to create lenses, magnifying glasses, prisms, and rainbows because of this bending caused by refraction. Even our eyes rely on this bending of light. We wouldn't be able to concentrate light onto our retina without refraction. The most common example is the refraction of white light in a prism shown in the picture, bending wavelengths of light of different amounts producing a rainbow. As observed, the prism bent the violet light the most and the red light the least. Furthermore, light refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a substance with a different refractive index (optical density) and refractive index varies according to wavelength. The purpose of this laboratory experiment is to confirm the light refraction phenomenon by using only a glass of water and a paper. Shown below are the actual video of the experiment as well as the corresponding laboratory report.
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. We are able to create lenses, magnifying glasses, prisms, and rainbows because of this bending caused by refraction. Even our eyes rely on this bending of light. We wouldn't be able to concentrate light onto our retina without refraction. The most common example is the refraction of white light in a prism shown in the picture, bending wavelengths of light of different amounts producing a rainbow. As observed, the prism bent the violet light the most and the red light the least. Furthermore, light refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a substance with a different refractive index (optical density) and refractive index varies according to wavelength. The purpose of this laboratory experiment is to confirm the light refraction phenomenon by using only a glass of water and a paper. Shown below are the actual video of the experiment as well as the corresponding laboratory report.
Salazar_BSCE2B_LR#5_Final Project.pdf
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
Sir Isaac Newton worked in many areas of mathematics and physics. He was able to develop the theories of gravitation when he was only 23 years old. In 1686, he presented his three laws of motion in the “Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis.” By developing his three laws of motion, Newton revolutionized science. Newton's first law of motion is known as Law of Inertia. This states that a body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at rest or uniform motion until and unless a net external force acts on it. Newton's second law of motion is known as Law of Force and Acceleration. This states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the object’s mass. Lastly, Newton's third law of motion is known as Law of Action and Reaction. This states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Sir Isaac Newton worked in many areas of mathematics and physics. He was able to develop the theories of gravitation when he was only 23 years old. In 1686, he presented his three laws of motion in the “Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis.” By developing his three laws of motion, Newton revolutionized science. Newton's first law of motion is known as Law of Inertia. This states that a body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at rest or uniform motion until and unless a net external force acts on it. Newton's second law of motion is known as Law of Force and Acceleration. This states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the object’s mass. Lastly, Newton's third law of motion is known as Law of Action and Reaction. This states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The Smart Cart is a low-friction dynamics cart with onboard wireless sensors that measure position, velocity, acceleration, force, and rotation (pasco.com). It connects to your devices using Bluetooth Low Energy wireless technology. It includes a magnetic bumper, force hook, rubber bumper, and a USB charging cable. Its features include the following: encoder wheel measures linear position, velocity, and acceleration; ±100 N force sensor measures forces along the rolling direction; 3-axis accelerometer measures x, y, z components of acceleration and the magnitude of the resultant; 3-axis gyroscope measures angular velocity around the x, y, and z axes; magnetic bumper for elastic collisions; 3-position plunger launches the Smart Cart using three repeatable forces; and Velcro® tabs for inelastic collisions.
SPARKvue software makes data collection, analysis, and sharing quick and easy on every platform. It is compatible with all of PASCO’s wireless and PASPORT sensors. Students can quickly set up their lab, or use a built-in Quick Start Lab and begin collecting data immediately using this software (pasco.com).
Furthermore, this laboratory experiment will utilize the smart cart and this SPARKvue software to confirm Newton's Second Law of Motion. Different technicalities will be followed while performing the experiment to obtain the expected linear graphs. Shown below is the laboratory report for the experiment.
Furthermore, this laboratory experiment will utilize the smart cart and this SPARKvue software to confirm Newton's Second Law of Motion. Different technicalities will be followed while performing the experiment to obtain the expected linear graphs. Shown below is the laboratory report for the experiment.
Salazar_BSCE2B_LR#6_Newton's Law.pdfREFLECTION
In the first laboratory experiment, physics and measurements, I was able to review the terms, scalar and vector quantities. Vector quantities are quantities that have both magnitude and direction while scalar quantities are quantities that have magnitude only. I also learned that the resultant is simply the vector sum of two or more vectors while considering the horizontal and vertical component when dealing with two-dimensional motion. Also, there are two methods in determining the resultant of some given vectors, the polygon and the component component. The polygon method is the graphical way in which the resultant will be measured through the sketch created. Note that the sketch must be scaled and drawn precisely to obtain an accurate resultant. The component method is the analytical way of solving the resultant in which computations are required especially the horizontal vertical components of the given vectors to eventually determine the resultant. Furthermore, the second laboratory experiment is related to the first one in which the focus is getting the equilibrant of the two given vectors. The equilibrant is the force that will balance the two given vectors. It has the same magnitude as the resultant but in opposite direction. Moreover, the third laboratory experiment was about motion in one dimension or motion along a straight line or in a single direction. An example of this motion is an object freely falling just like what we did for this experiment. Further, an acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. The relationship of velocity and acceleration will be proved in this experiment. Also, I had realized in this activity that the kinematic equations taught to us in the physics lecture subject can really be applied in real life problems. Meanwhile, the fourth laboratory experiment is motion in two dimensions or the motion that takes place in two different directions or coordinates simultaneously such as a projectile. This experiment used a projectile launcher to shot the balls in different angles. We measured the height and the horizontal distances that the ball traveled, then computed for the initial muzzle velocity. This velocity will be used to compute for the expected distance where the ball will land.My final project was the laboratory experiment 5 in which I chose the topic refraction of light. Refraction in physics is simply the change in in speed and direction of a wave as it enters a new medium. In this experiment, I proved how refraction of light occurs using the glass of water and the arrows. The phenomenon that will happen is explainable by the refraction of light. Note that light refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a substance with a different refractive index (optical density) and refractive index varies according to wavelength. Lastly, newton's law is the sixth laboratory experiment. Isaac Newton formulated the three laws of motion, namely, the law of inertia, law of force and acceleration, and the law of action and reaction. The focus of the experiment is the second law of motion which states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.
In the first laboratory experiment, physics and measurements, I was able to review the terms, scalar and vector quantities. Vector quantities are quantities that have both magnitude and direction while scalar quantities are quantities that have magnitude only. I also learned that the resultant is simply the vector sum of two or more vectors while considering the horizontal and vertical component when dealing with two-dimensional motion. Also, there are two methods in determining the resultant of some given vectors, the polygon and the component component. The polygon method is the graphical way in which the resultant will be measured through the sketch created. Note that the sketch must be scaled and drawn precisely to obtain an accurate resultant. The component method is the analytical way of solving the resultant in which computations are required especially the horizontal vertical components of the given vectors to eventually determine the resultant. Furthermore, the second laboratory experiment is related to the first one in which the focus is getting the equilibrant of the two given vectors. The equilibrant is the force that will balance the two given vectors. It has the same magnitude as the resultant but in opposite direction. Moreover, the third laboratory experiment was about motion in one dimension or motion along a straight line or in a single direction. An example of this motion is an object freely falling just like what we did for this experiment. Further, an acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. The relationship of velocity and acceleration will be proved in this experiment. Also, I had realized in this activity that the kinematic equations taught to us in the physics lecture subject can really be applied in real life problems. Meanwhile, the fourth laboratory experiment is motion in two dimensions or the motion that takes place in two different directions or coordinates simultaneously such as a projectile. This experiment used a projectile launcher to shot the balls in different angles. We measured the height and the horizontal distances that the ball traveled, then computed for the initial muzzle velocity. This velocity will be used to compute for the expected distance where the ball will land.My final project was the laboratory experiment 5 in which I chose the topic refraction of light. Refraction in physics is simply the change in in speed and direction of a wave as it enters a new medium. In this experiment, I proved how refraction of light occurs using the glass of water and the arrows. The phenomenon that will happen is explainable by the refraction of light. Note that light refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a substance with a different refractive index (optical density) and refractive index varies according to wavelength. Lastly, newton's law is the sixth laboratory experiment. Isaac Newton formulated the three laws of motion, namely, the law of inertia, law of force and acceleration, and the law of action and reaction. The focus of the experiment is the second law of motion which states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.
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