FOOD SCIENCE DEFINITION:

·         Multidisciplinary field that applies biological, chemical, and physical sciences to study the nature of food, its deterioration, the principles of food processing, and the development of safe, nutritious, and high-quality food products for consumers.

SCOPE:

1)      Food Chemistry:

·         Studying the chemical composition of food, including its components like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals.

2)      Food Microbiology:

·         Examining the microorganisms present in food, both beneficial and harmful, and their impact on food safety and spoilage.

3)      Food Processing:

·         Investigating the various methods used to transform raw ingredients into edible food products, such as milling, canning, and freezing.

4)      Food Preservation:

·         Developing techniques to extend the shelf life of food products, including methods like drying, salting, and fermentation.

5)      Food Engineering:

·         Applying engineering principles to food processing and production, including designing and optimizing food processing equipment and systems.

6)      Food Packaging:

·         Studying the materials and methods used to protect food products from damage, contamination, and spoilage.

7)      Food Safety:

·         Ensuring that food products are safe for consumption by implementing measures to prevent foodborne illnesses and contamination.

8)      Nutrition:

·         Understanding the nutritional value of food and its impact on human health, including the development of functional foods and dietary guidelines.

9)      Sensory Evaluation:

·         Assessing the sensory properties of food, such as taste, smell, appearance, and texture, to improve consumer acceptability.

FOOD DEFINITION:

·         Any substance consumed to provide nutritional support and energy to an organism.

·         It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS

     1. Based on its source: 

·         Plant-based foods:

    These originate from plants and are a vital part of a balanced diet. Examples include:

1)      Fruits: Apples, bananas, oranges, etc.

2)      Vegetables: Spinach, carrots, broccoli, etc.

3)      Grains: Wheat, rice, corn, etc.

4)      Legumes: Beans, lentils, peas, etc.

5)      Nuts and Seeds: Almonds, sunflower seeds, etc.

·         Animal-based foods:

1)  These originate from animals and are another crucial part of a balanced diet. Examples include:

2)  Meat: Beef, pork, lamb, etc.

3)  Poultry: Chicken, turkey, etc.

4)  Fish: Salmon, tuna, etc.

5)  Dairy: Milk, cheese, yogurt, etc.

6)  Eggs: From chickens, ducks, etc.

    2. Based on its function: Functional classification of foods:

           a)Physiological functions of food:

             i. Energy yielding foods

·         Foods that provides more energy.

·         Rich in carbohydrates and fats

·         E.g:Cereals, roots and tubers, dried fruits, oils, butter and ghee           

             ii. Body building foods

·         Helps in growth,repair and maintenance of body tissues-especially muscles,bones and skin.

·         Foods rich in protein.

·         E.g:Milk, meat, eggs ,fish ,pulses and nuts.

             iii. Protective and Regulatory foods

·         Foods rich in protein, minerals and vitamins

·         E.g:Milk, egg, liver, fruits and vegetables

           b) Social functions of food

·         Facilitating social interactions, expressing cultural identity, and marking important life events.

·         expression of love, friendship and happiness at religious, social and family get-togethers.

           c) Psychological functions of food

·         Satisfy certain emotional needs of human beings.

·         Include a sense of security, love and accce.

·         For example, preparation of delicious foods for family members is a token of love.

       3. Based on its nutrient supply: Nutritional classification of foods 

Food groups/Nutritional importance

Cereals and millets

Rich sources (70 to 80%) of carbohydrate, good sources of proteins (6 to 12%). B - Complex vitamins and minerals.

Pulses

Protein (18 to 28%), Certain B - Complex vitamins and minerals.

Nuts and oilseeds

Rich sources (18 to 25%) of proteins, fat (20 to 60%), B - vitamins and minerals.

Vegetables

a.   Green leafy vegetables

b.  Other vegetables

c.   Roots and tubers

Rich sources of carotene (Provitamin A) and good sources of vitamin C, Calcium and iron.

Vitamin C and Minerals.

Good sources of carbohydrates.

Fruits

Good sources of vitamin C and potassium

Animal foods

a.       Milk  and milk products

b.      Meat, fish and poultry

c.       Egg

Very good sources of all nutrients (except iron and vitamin C)

Rich sources of proteins(18 to 22%),
B -Complex vitamins and phosphorus

Rich sources of proteins (13%), fat (13%), vitamins and minerals.           

Sugar and Jaggery

Calories

Fats and oils

Calories and vitamins ( A, D, E & K)

Condiments and spices

It gives only palatability (flavour) of foods and the appetite.

                                                                                  FOOD GROUPS

FOUR FOOD GROUP PLAN - U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE (1956)

Milk group: Milk, cheese, ice cream

Calcium, Phosphorus, Proteins and Vitamins.

Meat group: Beef, veal, pork, lamb, poultry, fish, eggs

Proteins, Phosphorus, Iron and
B-Vitamins

Vegetable-fruit group

Vitamins, Minerals and Fibre

Cereals group

(Whole grain, enriched, restored)

Thiamine, Niacin, Riboflavin, Iron, Carbohydrates and Fibre.

FIVE FOOD GROUP PLAN - NUTRITION EXPERT GROUP, ICMR

 Milk group: This includes other protein rich foods such as pulses, nuts, meat, fish, eggs.

Rich sources of proteins, minerals and Vitamins.

Fruits and GLV: Papaya, Orange, Mango, Indian gooseberry, Guava etc and all green leafy vegetables.

Fair sources of certain vitamins, minerals

Other vegetables

Beans, Brinjal, Ladies finger etc.

Fair sources of certain vitamins, minerals and roughage.

Cereals, roots and tubers: Rice, Wheat, maize, ragi, pearl millet etc. potato, tapioca, sweet potato, etc.

Rich sources of starch-fair to good sources of proteins and certain B-Vitamins.

Fats and oils and pure CHO foods Vegetable oils, animal fats, sugar, jaggery, honey, sago, custard powder, starch, etc.

Rich sources of energy, vegetable oils are fair to good sources of EFA and Vitamin E. Butter good source of Vitamin A. Animal fats rich in cholesterol but poor sources of EFA and Vit. E. Pure CHO foods - rich sources of energy.

SEVEN FOOD GROUP PLAN - U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE (1943)

The 7-Food groups and the Mean nutrients contributed

Green and yellow vegetables

Carotene (Provitamin A), Ascorbic acid and iron

Oranges, grape fruits, tomatoes or raw cabbage or salad greens

Ascorbic acid

Potatoes, other vegetables and fruits

Vitamins and minerals in general and fibre

Milk and milk products

Calcium, Phosphorus, Proteins and Vitamins

Meat, Poultry, fish and eggs

Proteins, Phosphorus, Iron and B-Vitamins

Bread, Flour and cereal (Whole grain, enriched or restored)

Thiamine, Niacin, Riboflavin, Iron, Carbohydrate and Fibre

Butter or fortified margarine

Vitamin A and Fat

ELEVEN FOOD GROUP PLAN - U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE (1964)

1. Cereals and millets

2. Pulses (Legumes)

3. Nuts and oilseeds

4. Vegetables

5. Fruits

6. Milk and milk products

7. Eggs

8. Meat, fish and other animal foods

9. Fats and oils

10. Sugar and other carbohydrate foods

11. Spices and condiments.

COOKING:

·         Heat is transferred to food via conduction, convection, radiation, microwaves. Cooking media include water, steam, air, and fat.

PURPOSE:

To transform raw ingredients into safe, palatable, and nutritious food that is easier to digest and more enjoyable to eat.

·         Safety:

Cooking eliminates harmful bacteria and pathogens that may be present in raw food, making it safe for consumption.

·         Digestibility:

Cooking softens tough fibers in meats and vegetables, breaking down complex structures into simpler substances that are easier for the body to digest and absorb nutrients.

·         Palatability:

Cooking enhances the flavor and texture of food, making it more appealing and enjoyable to eat.

·         Nutritional Value:

Cooking can make certain nutrients more accessible and increase the overall nutritional value of the food.

·         Variety:

Cooking allows for a wide range of dishes to be prepared from the same raw ingredients, offering more options for meals.

·         Preservation:

Cooking, particularly methods like canning or drying, can help preserve food for longer periods, reducing spoilage and waste.

CLASSIFICATION OF COOKING METHODS

MOIST HEAT METHODS

·           Boiling – Cooking in water at 100°C.

              Pros: Simple, uniform cooking, gelatinization of starch.

             Cons: Nutrient loss, color/flavor loss, time-consuming.

·         Simmering – Cooking below boiling point (82–92°C).

            Pros: Even cooking, minimal nutrient loss.

             Cons: Long cooking time, nutrient degradation.

·         Poaching – Cooking in minimal liquid at 80–85°C.

Pros: Quick, fat-free.

            Cons: Bland taste, some nutrient loss.

·         Stewing – Cooking in small liquid over low heat (98°C).

   Pros: Nutrient retention, good flavor.

           Cons: Time-consuming.

·         Steaming – Cooking via steam at 100°C.

          Pros: Nutritive, easily digestible, flavorful, minimal supervision.

          Cons: Requires equipment, limited dishes.

·         Pressure Cooking – High-pressure steam raises temp >100°C.

          Pros: Fast, fuel-saving, retains nutrients.

         Cons: Requires skill, may mix flavors or over-soften food.

DRY HEAT METHODS

Air as Medium

·         Grilling/Broiling – Uses radiant heat.

·         Toasting – Browning bread using dry heat.

            Pros: Fast, low fat, flavorful.

            Cons: Requires supervision.

·         Pan Broiling/Roasting – Dry heat on pan.

           Pros: Enhances flavor, texture.

            Cons: Nutrient loss with browning.

·         Baking – Uses hot air (120–260°C).

            Pros: Variety, bulk cooking, good texture.

           Cons: Needs equipment and skill.

Fat as Medium

·         Sautéing – Quick cooking with minimal oil.

           Pros: Retains moisture, mild flavor.

Frying

·         Shallow Frying: Partially immersed in oil.

·         Deep Frying: Fully immersed in hot oil (180–220°C).

           Pros: Tasty, quick, high calorie.

            Cons: Oily, hard to digest, harmful if oil reused.

COMBINATION METHOD

·         Braising – Combines roasting and stewing (e.g., meat on vegetables with stock).

  Common combinations:

·         Vermicelli payasam: Roasting + simmering

·         Vegetable curry: Sautéing + simmering

·         Cutlet: Boiling + deep frying

MICROWAVE COOKING

Uses magnetron to produce microwaves that heat food internally.

Pros:

·         Quick, energy-efficient

·         Uniform cooking

·         Nutrient preservation

·         Easy cleanup

Cons:

·         No browning

·         Not suitable for certain dishes (chapathi, deep-fried items)

·         Careful handling needed

HUMAN NUTRITION:

·         The process by which substances in food are transformed into body tissues and provide energy for the full range of physical and mental activities that make up human life.

CARBOHYDRATES

Introduction

             Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO). They are the primary and most economical source of energy, providing 50–70% of daily calories. Common dietary carbohydrates include starch, glucose, fructose, sucrose, and lactose.

CLASSIFICATION

·         Monosaccharides (C6H12O6):

a.       the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be broken down into smaller sugar units through hydrolysis

b.      Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

c.       Includes biose, trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses

·         Disaccharides (C12H22O11):

a.       a type of carbohydrate formed when two monosaccharides (simple sugars) are joined together by a glycosidic bond, with the simultaneous removal of a water molecule

b.      Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

·         Polysaccharides:

a.       large carbohydrate molecules formed by the linkage of many smaller sugar units called monosaccharides.

b.      Pentosans: Araban, Xylan

c.       Hexosans: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Inulin

·         Complex Polysaccharides:

a.       large molecules made up of chains of many simple sugar units (monosaccharides) linked together.

b.      Hemicellulose, Gums, Pectins

FUNCTIONS

·         Provide 4 kcal/g of energy

·         Essential for fat oxidation and protein sparing

·         Aid in synthesis of non-essential amino acids

·         Important for nervous system function

·         Lactose enhances calcium absorption

·         Add bulk (fiber) and flavor to diet

·         Digestion and Absorption

·         Begins in the mouth with ptyalin (salivary amylase)

·         Mainly occurs in the small intestine via enzymes like maltase, sucrase, and lactase

DEFICIENCY ISSUES

·         Diabetes mellitus

·         Protein deficiency due to calorie shortage

·         Obesity from excess intake

SOURCES

·         High in carbs: Cereals, millets, sugar, jaggery, sago, honey

·         Moderate: Pulses, fruits, tubers

·         Low: Milk, nuts

PROTEIN

             Proteins are complex nitrogenous compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. They are essential for biochemical and physiological functions and are made up of amino acids—21 of which are found in proteins.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS

I.Structural Classification

·         Mono amino-mono carboxylic acids:Glycine, alanine, leucine, etc.

·         Mono-amino dicarboxylic acids: Aspartic and glutamic acid.

·         Diamino-mono carboxylic acids:Arginine, lysine.

·         Sulphur-containing amino acids:Cystine, methionine.

·         Aromatic/heterocyclic amino acids: Phenylalanine, tryptophan, proline.

II. Physico-chemical Classification

·         Simple proteins:Yield only amino acids (e.g. albumins).

·         Conjugated proteins:Combined with non-protein (e.g. glycoproteins).

·         Derived proteins:Decomposition products (e.g. peptones).

III. Nutritional Classification

·         Complete proteins:Contain all essential amino acids (e.g. egg, milk).

·         Partially complete: Support life, limited growth (e.g. plant proteins).

·         Incomplete:Cannot support growth (e.g. zein).

IV. Amino Acid Content

·         Essential:Not synthesized by body (e.g. lysine, methionine).

·         Semi-essential: Synthesized from essential AAs (e.g. cystine).

·         Non-essential:Synthesized in the body (e.g. glutamic acid).

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

·         Body growth, repair, enzyme and hormone production.

·         Provide 4 kcal/g.

·         Support fetal growth and lactation.

·         Supply energy when needed.

DEFICIENCY DISEASES

·         Kwashiorkor: Protein deficiency; oedema, fatty liver, anemia.

·         Marasmus: Protein-calorie deficiency; muscle wasting.

·         Marasmic-Kwashiorkor: Combined symptoms.

FATS:

INTRODUCTION

·         Fats are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are water-insoluble, greasy, and soluble in organic solvents.

CLASSIFICATION OF FATS

·         Simple lipids: Esters of glycerol and fatty acids (e.g. oils, fats).

·         Compound lipids: Contain other groups like phosphate or carbohydrate (e.g. phospholipids, glycolipids).

·         Derived lipids: Products from hydrolysis of fats (e.g. linoleic acid).

·         Waxes: Esters of fatty acids and long-chain alcohols.

TYPES:

·         Saturated (SFA): No double bonds (e.g. butter, ghee)

·         Unsaturated (USFA): One or more double bonds

·         Monounsaturated: One double bond (e.g. oleic acid)

·         Polyunsaturated (PUFA): Multiple bonds, essential (e.g. linoleic acid)

FUNCTIONS OF FAT

·         Energy source (9 kcal/g)

·         Aids absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)

·         Provides essential fatty acids

·         Enhances palatability and satiety

·         Structural role in nerves (phospholipids)

·         Insulation and energy yielding

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

·         Infants: Perianal irritation, dry skin

·         Children/Adults: Phrynoderma (follicular keratosis)

RANCIDITY OF FATS

    Rancidity: Off-flavours in fat due to spoilage

TYPES:

·         Hydrolytic– Enzyme/lipase activity (e.g. butyric acid in butter)

·         Oxidative – Reaction with oxygen at double bonds (PUFA-sensitive)

·         Ketonic – Fungal action (e.g. on coconut oil)

PREVENTION OF RANCIDITY

·         Store in cool, dark places

·         Use of colored glass, vacuum packaging

·         Natural antioxidants: Vitamins C, E, β-carotene

·         Synthetic antioxidants: BHA, BHT, TBHQ, propyl gallate

VITAMINS:

·         One of several substances that are found in certain types of food and that are important for growth and good health.

TYPES OF VITAMINS:

There are 13 essential vitamins. This means that these vitamins are required for the body to work properly. They are:

·         Vitamin A

·         Vitamin C

·         Vitamin D

·         Vitamin E

·         Vitamin K

·         Vitamin B1 (thiamine)

·         Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)

·         Vitamin B3 (niacin)

·         Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

·         Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)

·         Pantothenic acid (B5)

·         Biotin (B7)

·         Folate (folic acid or B9)

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS:

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS:

·         A group of vitamins that dissolve in fats and oils,

VITAMIN A (Retinol & Provitamin A Carotenoids)

Functions

·         Enables low-light vision

·         Maintains epithelial health (skin, respiratory tract, eyes)

·         Supports bone growth, myelin integrity, mucopolysaccharide and glycoprotein synthesis, and reproduction

Deficiency Symptoms

·         Night blindness,

·         conjunctival and corneal drying (xerosis),

·         Bitot’s spots,

·         Keratomalacia

·         hyperkeratosis

Sources

·         Animal: fish, liver, dairy, eggs, butter, ghee

·         Plant: carrots, leafy greens, mango, pumpkin, tomatoes, red palm oil

Daily Requirements (µg Retinol / β-carotene)

·         Adult men/women: 600 / 2,400

·         Pregnant/lactating women: up to 950 / 3,800

·         Age-based for infants/children: ranges from 350–600 retinol / 1,200–2,400 β-carotene

VITAMIN D

Functions

·         Boosts calcium and phosphorus absorption

·         Supports blood mineral homeostasis and bone mineralization

Deficiency Symptoms

·         Rickets (children), osteomalacia (adults)

Sources

·         Sunlight exposure, fatty fish, fish liver oil, dairy, eggs, butter, ghee

Daily Requirements

·         ~400 IU for infants, children, pregnant/nursing women;

·          ~200 IU for others

·         In sunny climates~50% intake from sunlight may suffice

VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROL)

Functions

·         Antioxidant: protects fats and cell membranes

·         Supports reproduction, red-cell stability, liver and brain health

Deficiency Symptoms

·         In animals: reproductive failure, hemolytic anemia, muscular dystrophy

Sources

·         Vegetable oils (wheat germ, corn, safflower, sunflower, soybean, rice bran), butter, meat fats

Daily Requirements

·         Infants: \~5 mg;

·         children: 10–20 mg;

·          adolescents: \~25 mg;

·          adults: 25–30 mg daily

VITAMIN K

Functions

·         Essential for prothrombin synthesis and blood clotting

·         Facilitates γ-carboxylation of glutamate in clotting factors

Deficiency Symptoms

·         Increased bleeding,

·          hemorrhagic disease in newborns;

·         malabsorption-related bleeding issues

Sources

·         Green leafy vegetables,

·         rice bran oil,

·          cauliflower,

·          soy, pulses,

·          liver, dairy, meat

Daily Requirements

·         Adequately met by typical diets; no standard RDA provided

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

·         A group of essential micronutrients that dissolve in water

THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1)

Function:

·         Coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism;

·         important for nerve function.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Beriberi (dry – neurological, wet – cardiovascular),

·         fatigue,

·          irritability.

Sources:

·         Whole grains, legumes, nuts, pork, yeast.

·         RDA: \~1.1 mg/day (women), \~1.2 mg/day (men).

RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)

Function:

·         Coenzyme in energy metabolism (FAD, FMN); maintains healthy skin and eyes.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Cheilosis (cracked lips),

·          glossitis (inflamed tongue),

·          photophobia.

Sources:

·         Milk, eggs, green leafy vegetables, meat.

·         RDA: ~1.1 mg/day (women),

·         ~1.3 mg/day (men).

NIACIN (VITAMIN B3)

Function:

·         Coenzyme in energy production (NAD, NADP); supports skin and digestive health.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Pellagra – 3 D’s:

·         Dermatitis,

·         Diarrhea,

·         Dementia.

Sources:

·         Meat, fish, whole grains, legumes.

·         RDA: ~14 mg/day (women),

·         ~16 mg/day (men) NE (niacin equivalents).

PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)

Function:

·         Protein metabolism,

·         neurotransmitter synthesis,

·          hemoglobin formation.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Irritability,

·         depression,

·         anemia,

·         convulsions.

Sources:

·         Meat, bananas, whole grains, nuts.

·         RDA: ~1.3–1.7 mg/day (varies with age and sex).

FOLIC ACID (VITAMIN B9)

Function:

·         DNA synthesis,

·          cell division,

·          red blood cell formation.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Megaloblastic anemia,

·         neural tube defects in fetus.

Sources:

·         Leafy greens, legumes, liver, fortified cereals.

·         RDA: 400 mcg/day (adults); 600 mcg/day (pregnancy).

CYANOCOBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12)

Function:

·         Red blood cell formation,

·         nerve function,

·          DNA synthesis.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Pernicious anemia,

·         fatigue,

·          neurological issues.

Sources:

·         Animal products only – meat, eggs, dairy, fish.

·         RDA: 2.4 mcg/day.

BIOTIN (VITAMIN B7)

Function:

·         Coenzyme in fat and carbohydrate metabolism,

·         supports hair and skin health.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Dermatitis,

·         hair loss,

·         neurological issues (rare).

Sources:

·         Egg yolk,

·         nuts,

·         seeds, liver,

·         whole grains.

RDA (AI):

·         30 mcg/day (adults).

PANTOTHENIC ACID (VITAMIN B5)

Function:

·         Synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA),

·         fatty acid metabolism.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Fatigue,

·         irritability,

·         numbness (rare).

Sources:

·         Meat,

·         whole grains,

·         eggs,

·          legumes.

RDA (AI):

·         5 mg/day (adults).

ASCORBIC ACID (VITAMIN C)

Function:

·         Antioxidant,

·         collagen synthesis,

·          iron absorption,

·          immune support.

Deficiency Symptoms:

·         Scurvy (bleeding gums, poor wound healing),

·         fatigue.

Sources:

·         Citrus fruits,

·         guava,

·         strawberries,

·         green vegetables.

RDA:

·         75 mg/day (women), 90 mg/day (men).

MINERALS

·         Minerals are inorganic nutrients required in small amounts for various physiological functions and maintenance of health.

CLASSIFICATION:

·         Macro minerals (Major elements): Needed in larger amounts

·         Examples: Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Magnesium, Chloride, Sulphur

·         Micro minerals (Trace elements):Needed in minute amounts

·         Examples: Iron, Zinc, Iodine, Copper, Fluoride, Selenium, Manganese

IMPORTANT MINERALS OVERVIEW:

CALCIUM

Functions:

·         Bone and teeth formation,

·         muscle function,

·         nerve transmission,

·         blood clotting

Sources:

·         Milk,

·         cheese,

·         green leafy vegetables,

·         ragi,

·         fish

Deficiency:

·         Osteoporosis,

·         rickets,

·         muscle cramps

Requirement:

·         Adults – 600 mg/day;

·         Adolescents and pregnant/lactating women – 1000 mg/day

IRON

Functions:

·         Formation of hemoglobin,

·         oxygen transport

Sources:

·         Liver, meat,

·         egg yolk, green leafy vegetables,

·          jaggery

Deficiency:

·         Anemia,

·         fatigue,

·         weakness

Requirement:

·         Men – 17 mg/day;

·         Women – 21 mg/day;

·         Pregnancy – 35 mg/day

IODINE

Functions:

·         Synthesis of thyroid hormones

Sources:

·         Iodized salt,

·         seafood

Deficiency:

·         Goitre,

·         cretinism in children

Requirement:

·         150 µg/day

ZINC

Functions:

·         Wound healing,

·         immunity,

·         growth and development

Sources:

·         Meat, nuts,

·         legumes, dairy

Deficiency:

·         Growth retardation,

·         hair loss,

·         delayed healing

Requirement:

·         Men – 12 mg/day;

·         Women – 10 mg/day

DIETARY FIBRE

DEFINITION:

        Dietary fibre refers to indigestible plant-based carbohydrates that aid in digestive health.

TYPES:

1)      Soluble Fibre:

·         Dissolves in water, forms gel-like substance– Found in oats, apples, citrus fruits, barley

2)      Insoluble Fibre:

·         Adds bulk to stool, helps regular bowel movements -Found in whole grains, bran, vegetables

FUNCTIONS:

·         Promotes bowel health and prevents constipation

·         Reduces cholesterol levels

·         Helps regulate blood sugar levels

·         Aids in weight management

·         Supports gut microbiota

SOURCES:

·         Whole grains (brown rice, oats, whole wheat)

·         Pulses and legumes

·         Fruits (apple, banana, orange)

·         Vegetables (carrot, spinach, broccoli)

·         Nuts and seeds

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS:

·         Constipation

·         Risk of colon cancer

·         Increased cholesterol and blood sugar levels

·         Weight gain

FOOD PRESERVATION

·         Preservation refers to methods used to prevent or slow down food spoilage caused by microorganisms, enzymes, chemical reactions, air, or contamination from equipment.

NEED FOR PRESERVATION

·         Fresh produce deteriorates quickly due to fermentation, enzymatic action, chemical reactions, oxidation, and contamination.

IMPORTANCE / ADVANTAGES

   1. Prevents wastage of food

   2. Extends shelf life

   3. Enables value-added products

   4. Promotes self-employment

   5. Provides convenience (e.g., jams, squashes)

   6. Supports exports and economy

   7. Saves energy in food preparation

PRESERVATION BY LOW TEMPERATURE

  Low temperatures slow down microbial and enzymatic activity.

·         Cellar Storage (≈15°C): Suitable for root vegetables during winter.

·         Refrigeration (0–5°C): Slows spoilage in perishables (milk, meat, vegetables).

·         Freezing (–18 to –40°C): Long-term preservation of meats, fruits, juices.

PRESERVATION BY HIGH TEMPERATURE

   Heat destroys microorganisms, depending on food type and spoilage organisms.

·         Pasteurization (<100°C):

     Kills most microbes using LTH (60–70°C) or HTST (>70°C) methods. Common for milk and fruit juices.

·         Heating (~100°C):

      Used in boiling and blanching to pre-treat acidic foods and vegetables.

·         Sterilization (>100°C):

      Complete microbial destruction using pressure sterilizers. Required for non-acidic foods like peas and beans (116°C for 30–90 mins).

PRESERVATION BY IRRADIATION

    Food is sterilized using ionizing radiation (gamma rays/electron beams) without heat, also called cold sterilization.

·         Destroys microbes by generating free radicals.

·         Radiation up to 1 Mrad is considered safe.

APPLICATIONS:

·         Sterilizing sealed foods

·         Reducing spoilage organisms

·         Delaying ripening

·         Inhibiting sprouting

FOOD PROCESSING:

·         The action of performing a series of mechanical or chemical operations on food in order to change or preserve it.

METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING:

Ø  Salt Brining – Preserving food in a salt-water solution to inhibit microbial growth.

Ø  Example: Brined cucumbers.

Ø  Sugar Steeping – Soaking food in a sugar solution to reduce water activity and prevent spoilage.

Ø  Example: Fruit preserves like candied cherries.

Ø  Drying (Dehydration) – Removing moisture from food to prevent microbial growth.

Ø  Example: Dried mango slices.

Ø  Freezing – Lowering food temperature below 0°C to halt microbial activity.

Ø  Example: Frozen peas.

Ø  Refrigeration – Storing food at low temperatures (0–4°C) to slow microbial growth.

Ø  Example: Fresh milk in the fridge.

Ø  Canning – Sealing food in airtight containers after heat processing to kill microbes.

Ø  Example: Canned beans.

Ø  Salting – Applying dry salt directly to food to draw out moisture and inhibit bacteria.

Ø  Example: Salted fish.

Ø  Pickling – Preserving food in vinegar or brine, creating an acidic environment.

Ø  Example: Pickled onions.

Ø  Smoking – Exposing food to smoke to add flavor and extend shelf life.

Ø  Example: Smoked salmon.

Ø  Sugaring – Coating or preserving food in sugar to inhibit microbial activity.

Ø  Example: Jams or jellies.

Ø  Vacuum Packing – Removing air from packaging to limit oxidation and microbial growth.

Ø  Example: Vacuum-packed meat.

Ø  Pasteurization – Heating food to a specific temperature for a short time to kill pathogens.

Ø  Example: Pasteurized milk.

Ø  Irradiation – Using ionizing radiation to destroy microorganisms in food.

Ø  Example: Irradiated spices.

Ø  Fermentation – Using beneficial microbes to convert sugars into acids/alcohol for preservation.

Ø  Example: Yogurt or kimchi.

Ø  Chemical Preservation – Adding chemical preservatives to inhibit spoilage organisms.

Ø  Example: Sodium benzoate in fruit juices.

Ø  Cooling – Lowering the temperature of food temporarily to slow spoilage.

Ø  Example: Cooling cooked rice before refrigeration

PROCESSING OF PUFFED, FLAKED, AND EXTRUDED PRODUCTS

CEREALS AND MILLETS PROCESSING

          Cereals and millets are processed into ready-to-eat foods like puffed, flaked, and extruded products. Puffing and flaking cause dextrinization rather than gelatinization of starch.

PUFFING/POPPING

·         heating moist grains (18–20% moisture) at 190–250°C in a closed container,

·         causing internal moisture to vaporize and the grain to “pop.”

·         Final moisture should be <3% for crispness.

Examples:

  Puffed Rice:

·         Parboiled rice roasted in sand at 150–200°C;

·          sieved to remove sand.

  Popcorn:

·         Special maize variety heated at ~177°C;

·         seasoned and packed in moisture-proof bags.

  Popped Sorghum:

·         Cleaned and soaked grains popped at 250°C for 2 mins.

  Popped Millets:

·         Soaked to 20% moisture, tempered, surface dried, and puffed with oil at 250°C.

  Puffed Pulses:

·         Soaked in NaHCO₃ and salt solution, tempered, dried, and puffed in hot sand.

FLAKING

         Involves cooking grains with water, rolling them between steel rollers, and toasting.

KEY CHANGES DURING FLAKING:

·         Starch gelatinization

·         Browning (Maillard reaction)

·         Enzyme inactivation

·         Dextrinization and caramelization

·         Moisture reduction for crispness

FLAKED RICE:

·         Traditional: Parboiled, softened, roasted, pounded, and winnowed.

·         Modern: Involves mechanical parboiling, hulling, steaming, flaking, roasting, and packing.

CORN FLAKES:

·         Cleaned maize is steamed, flavored (salt/sugar), tempered for moisture uniformity, flaked, baked, and packed.

·         Moisture control and quick packing are crucial due to hygroscopic nature.

  Flow Chart:

         Grain → Cleaning → Cooking (with additives) → Moistening → Tempering → Flaking → Baking → Packaging

EXTRUSION

·         Extrusion combines mixing, heating, shaping, and forming under high temperature (up to 200°C) and pressure for a short time (10–60 sec).

·          It’s a HTST process that modifies starch, protein, lipids, and inactivates anti-nutrients and microbes.

Steps:

·         Maida flour is sieved and steamed.

·         Mixed with water and salt, kneaded, and extruded.

·         Steamed, tempered (10 hrs), dried (50°C for 2–4 hrs), and packed.

Flow Chart:

             Flour → Sieving → Steaming → Sieving → Extruding (with salt/water) →       Gelatinizing → Tempering → Drying → Cooling → Packing

FOOD PACKAGING – DEFINITION

·         coordinated system of preparing food for transport, storage, distribution, and use.

·         It ensures safe delivery without compromising quality.

FUNCTIONS / IMPORTANCE OF FOOD PACKAGING

·         Protects against physical, chemical, and biological damage.

·         Enhances convenience and handling.

·         Communicates information and supports marketing.

·         Extends shelf life and reduces economic loss.

REQUIREMENTS OF EFFECTIVE PACKAGING

·         Nontoxic, contamination-resistant.

·         Moisture, oxygen, odor, and UV barrier.

·         Physically durable, tamper-resistant, resealable, and easy to open.

·         Attractive, low-cost, and food-compatible.

TYPES OF PACKAGING MATERIAL

1.RIGID

Glass: Inert, transparent, reusable. Used for milk, syrups, jams.

Metal: Tinplate/aluminum for cheese, baby food, meat, oils.

2. SEMI-RIGID

Composite containers: Paperboard lined with foil/plastic (e.g., spices).

Wooden boxes/crates:For fresh produce.

3. FLEXIBLE

Paper, aluminum foil, plastic pouches used for bakery, ready-to-eat foods, spices.

PROTECTIVE PACKAGING METHODS

1)      Retort Pouches:

  Heat-resistant, multilayer films (PET/Al/PP) used for sterilized ready-to-eat foods.

2)      Aseptic Packaging:

   Sterile food filled in sterile containers; used for milk, juices.

3)      Form-Fill-Seal:

   Automated forming and sealing of packages (used for milk, juices).

4)      Edible Films:

   Made from starch, protein, wax; extend shelf life, reduce waste.

5)      Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP):

   Controls gas mix to prolong freshness; used for fruits, meats, snacks.

6)      Vacuum Packaging:

  Removes air to reduce spoilage; used for meats and high-fat foods.

7)      Microwave Packaging:

  CPET trays used for reheatable food.

8)      Active Packaging:

  Absorbs gases or releases antimicrobials to extend shelf life.

LABELING OF PROCESSED FOODS

IMPORTANCE:

·         Ensures product traceability, safety, and consumer awareness.

·         Mandatory by law for fair trade and health protection.

LABEL INFORMATION:

   1. Food name

   2. Net quantity (e.g., in grams, ml)

   3. Ingredients (listed by descending weight)

   4. Manufacturer’s name and address

   5. Product dates (expiry, pack, best before)

   6. Nutrition Facts – per serving basis; includes calories, fat, sodium, carbs, protein, vitamins.

   7. Other info: trademarks, religious symbols, barcodes, safe handling instructions.

NUTRITION LABEL EXAMPLE – FRIED RICE

·         Serving Size: 1 cup (228g), Serves: 2

·         Calories: 260 (120 from fat)

·         Fat: 13g (Saturated 5g), Cholesterol: 30mg, Sodium: 660mg

·         Carbs: 31g, Sugar: 5g, Fibre: 0g, Protein: 5g

·         Vitamins: A 4%, C 2%, Calcium 15%, Iron 4%

LABELING MARKS AND STANDARDS

·         FPO Labeling:For fruit and vegetable products (e.g., squash, ketchup).

·         AGMARK:For agricultural products (e.g., sesame oil) ensuring grade and purity.

·         ISI Mark:Indicates conformity to Indian Standards for quality and safety.

FOOD ADULTERATION

DEFINITION:

·         Degrading the quality of food by either adding or removing certain substances, making it unsafe for consumption.

·         Adulterants may be chemical or biological in nature and are often added to increase profit margins.

TYPES OF FOOD ADULTERATION:

1.Intentional Adulteration:

           Deliberately added substances to increase weight or volume or to enhance appearance.

   Examples:

·         Sand in spices

·         Water in milk

·         Brick powder in chili powder

2.Incidental Adulteration:

       Contamination occurring unintentionally during production, storage, or transportation.

   Examples:

·         Pesticide residues

·         Insect larvae

·         Rodent hair

HEALTH HAZARDS OF ADULTERATED FOOD:

·         Food poisoning

·         Gastrointestinal infections

·         Cancer (due to carcinogenic adulterants)

·         Damage to vital organs like liver, kidneys, heart

·         Weakening of immune system

DETECTION OF ADULTERATION (Simple Household Tests):

·         Water in milk:Put a drop on a polished surface — pure milk flows slowly, while adulterated milk spreads quickly.

·         Chalk in sugar:Dissolve in water — chalk settles at the bottom.

·         Artificial color in vegetables:Rub with a cotton swab dipped in water — color stains indicate dye.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL:

·         Buy food items from reputed sources.

·         Avoid buying open or loose food products.

·         Check FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) mark.

·         Educate people about food safety practices.

·         Conduct regular food inspections and strict enforcement of food laws.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK IN INDIA:

·         FSSAI Act, 2006:Governs food safety standards.

·         Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act, 1954:Now merged under the FSSAI.

·         Punishment:Heavy fines and imprisonment for selling or manufacturing adulterated foods.

FOOD LAW AND REGULATIONS

·         The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act of 1954, effective from June 1, 1955, was enacted to ensure that food sold to consumers is pure, wholesome, and free from fraud or deception.

·         It prohibits the manufacture, sale, and distribution of adulterated, contaminated, or misbranded food items.

·         Amendments were made in 1964 and 1976.

·         The Act specifies microbial standards for various foods such as pasteurized milk, milk powder, infant food, and tomato products.

ESSENTIAL COMMODITIES ACT, 1954

·         The main objective of this Act is to ensure the adequate supply of essential commodities to the public by regulating distribution, preventing black marketing, and keeping prices reasonable.

·         Several control orders have been issued under the Act, including the

·         Fruit Product Order (1955), Sugar Control Order (1966), Meat Products Control Order (1973), and Vegetable Oil Product Control Order (1976).

FRUIT PRODUCTS ORDER (FPO)

·         The Fruit Products Order (FPO) was first introduced in 1946 and revised in 1955 under Section-3 of the Essential Commodities Act.

·         It is administered by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries through the Food and Nutrition Board.

Key Provisions:

·         Manufacturing and labeling of fruit/vegetable products require a license issued after inspection for quality, hygiene, equipment, and facility standards.

·         Products meeting the FPO standards may bear the FPO mark.

·         Regular inspections ensure compliance, and violation of standards is a punishable offense.

·         FPO licensing is governed under Rule-50 of the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act.

TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS:

·         The Second Schedule of the Order specifies:

·         Product standards (Parts II–XIX)

·         Limits on toxic metals (Part XXI)

·         Permissible food colors and preservatives(Parts XXII–XXIII)

·         Use of antioxidants and additives (Part XXIV)

·         Units must have in-house labs with qualified staff for quality testing.

HYGIENE & SANITATION STANDARDS:

·         Premises must be clean, well-lit, ventilated, and meet construction and drainage standards.

·         Potable water must be tested for chemical and bacterial safety.

·         Adequate machinery ,smoke outlets, and waste disposal systems are required.

LICENSING PROCESS:

Applicants must submit:

·         Application Form A

·         List of equipment and factory layout

·         Water analysis report

·         Ownership proof and NOC if outside an industrial area

·         Legal documents (e.g., MoA, registration)

·         Demand Draft for license fee

AGMARK STANDARD

      AGMARK (short for Agricultural Marketing) is a quality certification mark established under the Agricultural Produce Act of 1937 by the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Government of India.

Key Features:

·         AGMARK standards apply to items like cereals, spices, oils, butter, ghee, legumes, and eggs.

·         Products are graded into four categories Special, Good, Fair, and Ordinary(Grades 1 to 4).

·         Quality is assessed based on size, color, moisture, fat content, weight, and variety.

·         Standards also specify appropriate packaging based on physical and chemical properties of the product.

ADMINISTRATION:

·         Managed by the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, with:

·         21 laboratoriesband 50 sub-offices nationwide

·         A Central AGMARK Laboratory in Nagpur for ongoing research

·         Official staff supervise product selection, processing, grading, and labeling.

VOLUNTARY VS. COMPULSORY GRADING:

·         Voluntary: Ghee, butter, vegetable oils, atta, spices, honey

·         Compulsory (for export): Tobacco, walnuts, spices, basmati rice, essential oils, onions, potatoes

Benefits of AGMARK Grading:

·         Protects producers from exploitation by providing fair pricing through quality recognition.

·         Facilitates trade by standardizing product descriptions, reducing the need for physical inspection.

·         Ensures consumer protectionvby guaranteeing quality and purity.

   Though AGMARK-graded products may cost slightly more, the assured quality justifies the price.

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS)

·         The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National Standards Body of India, established under the BIS Act, 1986.

·         It is responsible for the formulation of standards, certification, testing, quality assurance, and promotion of standardization across various sectors, including food products.

KEY FUNCTIONS OF BIS:

1.      Standards Formulation:

·         Over 17,000 standards formulated in areas like product specifications, testing methods, and codes of practice.

·         Emphasis on updating standards, aligning with international norms, and supporting technological development.

2.      Product Certification:

·         Allows manufacturers to use the BIS Standard Mark, ensuring quality, safety, and reliability.

·         Certification is backed by regular surveillance, inspections, and testing from BIS labs or recognized labs.

·         BIS can authorize foreign manufacturers, mandate compulsory certification for safety/health/environmental reasons, and impose penalties for misuse.

SPECIAL CERTIFICATION SCHEMES:

·         ECO Mark (1991): For environment-friendly products, administered by BIS.

·         Quality Management Systems (QSC):Based on ISO 9000 series(adopted as IS 9000).

·         BIS certifies enterprises and conducts periodic audits.

·         Environment Management Systems (EMS):

·         Based on ISO 14000, for sustainable industrial practices.

HACCP CERTIFICATION:

     Based on IS 15000:1998, aligned with Codex ALINORM for food safety and hygiene.

LABORATORY & TESTING SERVICES:

        BIS operates labs in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Chandigarh, and Patna.

Functions include:

·         Product testing and calibration

·         Approval of external labs

·         Calibration of instruments

·         Supply of reference materials

Standards Promotion Activities:

Promotes adoption through:

·         Sectoral committees (steel, food, IT, textiles, etc.)

·         Public procurement based on standards

·         Integration with education and legislation

·         Awareness campaigns and public engagement

Compulsory BIS Certification (under PFA Rules):

·         For consumer safety, some food items require mandatory certification, including:

·         Food colours and additives

·         Infant milk food & formula

·         Milk cereal-based weaning food

·         Milk powder and condensed milk

CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT, 1986

         Objective: To protect consumer rights against defective goods, deficient services, overcharging, and unfair trade practices.

Redressal Mechanism:

·         Complaints can be filed at District Consumer Forums.

·         Forums can order repairs, replacements, refunds, or compensation.

·         Appeals go to State Commissions and then to the National Commission.

Note: Consumer awareness regarding food adulteration laws is low, which hampers enforcement.

CODEX ALIMENTARIUS

Created by:

·         FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.

Purpose:

·         To protect consumer health and facilitate international food trade.

Scope:

·         Covers specific food standards (e.g., cereals, juices, meats) and general standards (e.g., labeling, hygiene, additives, contaminants).

·         Includes codes of hygienic practice, Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for pesticides, and standards for food-grade additives.

Use:

·         Helps processors ensure food safety and compliance in international trade.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS ORDER, 1992

Objective:

·         To set sanitation and hygiene standards in dairy plants.

·         Establishes an advisory board to guide on the production, sale, purchase, and distribution of milk and milk products.

MEAT PRODUCTS ORDER

Objective:

·         To ensure safe and sanitary handling of meat and prevent sale of meat from diseased animals.

Key Provisions:

·         Meat must be inspected and marked

·         Ensures clean processing, disease-free animals, and no harmful additives.

·         Sets rules for slaughterhouse practices and pathogen-free meat handling.

COLD STORAGE ORDER, 1980

Issued under:Essential Commodities Act, 1955.

·         Ensure hygienic refrigeration conditions in cold stores.

·         Regulate the cold storage industry and prevent exploitation of farmers.

·         Provide technical guidance for scientific food preservation.

·         The Agricultural Marketing Adviser acts as the licensing authority.

      These regulations collectively aim to ensure consumer safety, food quality, and fair trade practices across various stages of the food supply chain in India.

ENFORCEMENT OF FOOD LAWS

·         Sanitary conditions in processing, packaging, and storage

·         Compliance with minimum quality standards

INSPECTORS ARE AUTHORIZED TO:

·         Seize adulterated or misbranded products

·         Destroy or relabel such items

·         Initiate legal action, including fines or court proceedings for serious violations

·         Additionally, organizations like the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)and the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection also establish and enforce quality standards for food products.