Agricultural extension

Extension Education

Ø Extension education - Way of sharing knowledge, skills, and information with people in rural or local communities to help them improve their lives, farming practices, and livelihoods. Extension (Latin word) = Ex(Out)+ tension(Stretching)

Ø The word 'Extension' was used first time in USA.

Ø Agricultural extension was primarily stated first in USA in 1908

Ø First extension work was done in 1785 in Philadelphia state of USA when few farmers got together and organised to sell their produce.

Ø In India extension primarily started with Gurgaon project which was organized by F.L. Brayne in 1920

Ø The study of extension education as a course first time started at Sabour (Bhagalpur) in Bihar in 1956.

Ø Father of extension education: J.P. Leagans.

Ø Father of extension in India: K.N. Singh

Ø Father of demonstration: Dr. Seeman A. Knapp

Ø Father of Sociology/Rural Sociology: August Compte

Ø Father of modern sociology: R.K. Merton

Rural Sociology And Development:

Ø Sociology: Term coined by Auguste Comte

Ø Auguste Comte (1789-1875) father of sociology

Ø Latin word 'socius' meaning companion

Ø Greek word 'logos' meaning speech or reasoning.

Ø Sociology is the study of nature of human relationship.

Ø It is a scientific study of the laws of the structure and development of rural society.

Ø It studies the attitudes and behaviour of rural people.

Ø It studies the needs and interests of rural society.

Ø Word Family is derived from - Roman.

Ø Chitambar - a social group is a unit of two or more people in reciprocal (to and from) and in communication with each other.

Ø Primary groups are relationship directed whereas secondary groups are goal oriented.

Ø The chief characteristic of rural life is homogeneity, there are not many differences among people pertain to income, status etc.

Ø Rural sociology: It is sociology of rural life in the rural environment.

Ø Village: Is first unit in development of county.

Ø Culture: culture is socially standardized.

Ø Culture provides us with a design for living.

Ø Culture traits: Any single ides going to forms a culture is called culture traits The culture traits are the smallest unit of culture.

Ø Culture area: Region where in a specific culture patters or cultural complex may be found.

Ø Ethos: Those traits or pattern of culture of a particular society which most distinguish it from other societies

Ø The culture heritage: Sum of the total of the culture pattern that a person receives from the various social group of which he is a member.

Ø Ethnocentrism: Tendency of man to consider his own culture of high value and superior to others and

Ø Culture lag: Altering of one aspect of culture behind another.

Ø Social values: Assumption largely unconscious of what is right and important.

Ø Norms: Blueprints for behaviour setting limits within which individual may seek alternate goals it achieves their goals.

Ø Tradition: Uniformly accepted way thinking about some particular aspects of our life. Tradition creates cultural lag and comes in way of scientific improvement.

Ø Customs: Accepted mode of behaviour and transmit from generation to generation.

Ø Folkway’s: Tradition and corresponding customs together constitution the folkway.

Ø Mores: These are the folkway which are compulsory in nature. Mores determine what is right and what is wrong. They are positive and negative. The negative mores are called as taboos.

Ø Laws: Rules made by an authorized government to define specific act for the purpose of promoting orderly social operation.

Ø Conventions: Are the necessary for smooth running of social life.

Ø Etiquettes: Etiquettes specify the detailed formalities to be observed on ceremonial occasions.

Ø Beliefs: Acceptance of proposition about some part of life as true

Ø Superstitions: Beliefs that are not founded on fact are superstition, that usually arise out of ignorance and fear of unknown.

Principles of Extension Education:

Ø Interest and Needs: Extension programs should align with the interests and needs of the target audience.

Ø Grass-roots Organization: Programs should be planned and implemented with local community involvement.

Ø Cultural Differences: Extension programs should respect and adapt to local cultural norms and values.

Ø Evaluation: Regular assessment and evaluation of programs to ensure effectiveness.

Ø Cooperation and Participation: Community members should be actively involved in program planning and implementation.

Ø Applied Science and Democratic Approach: Programs should apply scientific knowledge in a participatory and inclusive manner.

Ø Learning by Doing: Hands-on experience and practical learning are essential for effective extension.

Ø Adaptability: Extension methods should be flexible and adaptable to different contexts and needs.

Ø Trained Specialist: Extension services should be delivered by trained and knowledgeable specialists.

Ø Leadership: Programs should foster and support local leadership and capacity building.

Ø Whole Family: Extension programs should involve and benefit the entire family unit.

Ø Satisfaction: Programs should aim to satisfy the needs and expectations of the target audience.

Social Institutions

Social institutions are established patterns of values, behaviors, and relationships that organize social life. 

1. Family

·        A system of organized relationships that meets basic social needs

·        Types:

o   Conjugal family: Consists of husband, wife, and children

o   Consanguine family: Consists of large group of blood relatives

·        Family structures vary across cultures, including monogamous, polyandrous, and polygamous relationships

·        Family values and norms are shaped by cultural and historical factors

2. Religion

·        Includes rituals, ceremonies, and beliefs that shape behavior and values

·        Can reinforce or challenge societal norms, particularly regarding gender and race

         3. Government

·        Administers law and order, maintains security, and regulates behavior

·        Includes secondary institutions like military, police, and legal systems

·        Shapes societal norms and values through policies and legislation

·        Can assume various functions, such as education and physical protection

4. Economy

·        Provides basic physical subsistence and meets basic needs

·        Includes production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

·        Shapes access to resources, opportunities, and overall well-being

·        Influences societal values, such as efficiency and competition

5. Education

·        Socializes individuals and introduces them to their social and cultural world

·        Transmits cultural heritage and promotes social integration

·        Prepares individuals for roles in society through formal and informal learning

·        Shapes individual behaviors, values, and norms.

Social Interaction:

·        Refers to the process of reciprocal influence exercised by individuals over one another during social encounters.

·        It involves people taking each other into account and building up their actions accordingly.

Associative Processes:

·        Cooperation: Working together for a common goal or mutual benefit. Cooperation is essential for achieving individual and collective objectives.

·        Accommodation: Adjusting to new environments or resolving conflicts to work together despite differences. Accommodation can be seen as "antagonistic cooperation".

·        Assimilation: Integrating into a new culture or society by adopting its norms, values, and practices.

·        Acculturation: Adopting aspects of another culture, often resulting in cultural change.

Dissociative Processes:

·        Competition: Striving for limited resources or goals, which can lead to social imbalance. Competition assigns individuals a place in the social system and stimulates achievements.

·        Conflict: A deliberate attempt to oppose or coerce others, often arising from reduced supply of resources, status differences, or moral norms. Conflict can weaken groups and lead to social disintegration.

 Communication Technologies

Communication:

Ø Process of effecting an interchange of understanding between two or more people.

Ø Communication is a two way or double way process.

Ø Communication involves:

·        Source and his message.

·        Receiver and his response.

Ø Latin word ‘communis’ meaning ‘common’. It means to establish commonness between sender and receiver of message is termed as communication.

Key Elements of Communication:

Ø Sender

Ø Message

Ø Message treatment i.e., encoding.

Ø Communication medium

Ø Receiver: It is the most important element because every element is distinct towards receiver

Ø Receiver response

Types of Communication:

Ø Formal communication flows through officially prescribed route in which there are officially recognised positions.

Ø Informal communication may be conveyed by a simple glance, gesture, smile or mere silence.

Ø Downward communication when information comes from higher level to a lower level in the organization structure.

Ø Horizontal communication when it takes place between two subordinates of the same superior.

Ø Verbal or oral communication is a face-to-face conversation through subordinates of the same superior.

Ø Written communication is a process involves sending messages by written words.

Ø Non-verbal communication is a message without using arbitrary symbols.

Communication Methods:

Ø Individual methods

·        Farm and home visit

·        Farmer’s call

·        Adaptive or mini kit trial

·        Farm clinic

Ø Group Method

·        Number of persons (5-30)

·        Result demonstration-seeing is believing

·        Method demonstration – Learning by doing

·        Group meeting

·        Small group trainings

·        Field day

·        Study tour

Ø Mass Methods: (> 100 persons)

·        Farm publication:

a.      Leaflet: Single printed sheet of paper of small size, containing preliminary information relating to a topic. Generally distributed free of cost.

b.     Folder: Single printed sheet of paper of big size, folded once or twice and gives essential information relating to a particular topic. Generally distributed free of cost.

c.      Bulletin: Printed, bound booklet with a number of pages, containing comprehensive information about topic. It is a printed as and when required. A small price may be fixed.

d.     Newsletter: Miniature newspaper in good quality paper, containing information relating to the activities and achievements of the organization. It has a fixed periodicity or publication. Generally distributed free of cost.

e.      Journal and magazine: These are periodicals, containing information related to various-to-various topics of interest not only for the farmers but also for the extension agents. It has a fixed periodicity of publication. Generally distributed free of cost.

·        Mass meeting:

    The size of the audience for mass meeting may be a few hundreds, but at a time of fairs or festivals it may be few thousands.

(a)  Campaign

(b) Exhibition

(c)  Newspaper

(d) Radio

(e)  Television

(f)   Audio visual aids

Communication Models:

1.  Aristotle’s Model:

 ·        Communication takes place face to face.

SPEAKER---SPEECH--OCCASION--AUDIENCE--EFFECT

      2.    Shanon-weaver Model:

           SENDER--ENCODER--CHANNEL--DECODER--RECEIVER

                                                          |

                                                    NOISE

      3. Westly and Machean’s Model:

             SENDER--GATEKEEPER--RECEIVER

       4.  Berlo’s model (S-M-C-R):

             SOURCE--MESSAGE--CHANNEL--RECEIVER

    5. Schramm (1961) SESDD:

     ENCODER--INTERPRETER--DECODER---MESSAGE

        |                                                                            |

        -------------------------------------------------FEEEDBACK

    6. S-M-R-C-E Model (Roger & Shoemaker):

           SOURCE--MESSAGE--CHANNEL--RECEIVER--EFFECT

                                    (FEEDBACK IS RECEIVED)

     7.   Legans (1963) CMCTAR:

          SOURCE--MESSAGE--CHANNEL--TREATMENT--AUDIENCE--AUDIENCE RESPONSE

Teaching-Learning Process

Ø Teaching: Process of arranging situation in which the important things to be learned are called to the attention of the learners, their interest developed, desire arises, and action promoted.

Ø Learning: Process by which and individual, through one’s own efforts and abilities change the behaviour.

Ø Process: Means a course of procedures, some things that occurs in a series of action or events conducting to the desired end.

Role of Extension Education in Development:

Ø Farmers or rural people

Ø Innovations or inventions

Ø Extension workers

An Effective Learning Situation:

Ø Learners: who want and need to learn are the learners. Learners should be capable of learning, have interest in the subject, have need for the information offered and be able to use the information once it is gained.

Ø Teachers: Extension agents who impart training and motivate the learners. They not only know what to teach but also know how to teach.

Ø Subject matter: Content or topic of teaching that is useful to the learners.

Ø Teaching materials: Appropriate instructional materials, equipment’s and aids.

Ø Physical facilities: Appropriate physical environment in which teaching learning can take place.

Extension Teaching Methods:

Classification of extension teaching methods according to their use:

Ø Individual contact

·        Farm and home visit

·        Flag method

·        Office call

·        Telephone call

·        Personal letter

Ø Group contact

·        Method and result demonstration

·        Frontline demonstration

·        Leader training meeting

·        Conference, discussion, meeting and workshop

·        Field trip, field day agricultural game and peripatetic team visit

Ø Mass contact

·        Bulletin boards and flash cards

·        Leaflets, campaigns and news stories

·        Circular letters, radio and film shows

·        Television, exhibition, fairs, charts, video, audio - cassettes, internet, and CD-ROM

Classification of extension teaching method according to their form

Ø Written

·        Bulletins

·        Leaflet

·        News article

·        Personal letter

·        Circular letter

·        Booklet and pamphlet

Ø Spoken

·        General and special meetings, and conferences

·        Farm and home visit Official call Telephone call and radio

Ø Visual

·        Demonstrations, exhibitions, posters, charts

·        Motion picture or movies, photographs

·        Slides and film strips models, specimens

Ø Spoken and visual

·        Television, meetings at the visual meetings site of demonstrations, involving motion pictures, charts and sound movies, radio vision, other visual material, drama VCR, sound synchronize slides, internet, and CD-ROM

Steps in extension teaching:

1. Attention:

·        Create awareness of new ideas and practices.

·        Utilize mass methods like radio, television, exhibitions.

·        Establish personal contact through extension agents and local leaders.

2. Interest:

·        Stimulate interest in the new idea.

·        Employ personal contact, local leaders, farm publications, radio, and television.

3.     Desire:

·        Motivate for change by unfreezing existing behaviour.

·        Conduct visits to demonstrations, group discussions, use farm publications.

4. Conviction:

·        Persuade strongly about the new idea’s applicability.

·        Organize field days, slide shows, provide training.

5. Action:

·        Implement the idea or practice.

·        Collect evidence of change like yield, income, employment.

·        Conduct demonstrations, ensure essential services.

6. Satisfaction:

·        Ensure lasting change by producing satisfying results.

·        Achieve satisfaction through high yield, increased income, and better health.

·        Use mass media, local leaders, and personal contact by extension agents.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a set of participatory approaches and methods that enable rural communities to express, analyze, and plan their own development needs using their local knowledge and skills.

Key PRA Techniques:

Mapping and Modeling:

Creating visual representations of the community, including resource maps, social maps, and ecosystem maps.

Transect Walks:

Walking through the area with community members to observe and discuss different aspects of the environment and livelihoods.

Seasonal Calendars:

Analyzing changes in resources and activities throughout the year, such as rainfall patterns, food availability, and agricultural practices.

Matrix Scoring:

Ranking different options or strategies based on their perceived benefits and drawbacks, using a matrix to organize the information.

Trend and Change Analysis:

Identifying changes over time, such as population growth, land use changes, or livelihood diversification.

Wealth Ranking:

Categorizing households or individuals based on their assets and resources, often using a simple ranking exercise.

Livelihood Analysis:

Exploring how people earn a living, including their income sources, skills, and access to resources.

Problem Tree:

Identifying the root causes of a problem and their consequences, using a visual diagram to organize the information.

Solution Tree:

Developing potential solutions to a problem, building on the problem tree analysis.

Focus Group Discussions:

Gathering insights and opinions from community members through group discussions, facilitated by trained facilitators.

Semi-structured Interviews:

Conducting in-depth interviews with key informants to gather detailed information about specific topics.

Triangulation:

Using multiple sources of data and methods to verify the accuracy and reliability of the findings.

Time-Use Surveys:

Mapping out how people spend their time, including work, leisure, and household activities.

ICT In Agriculture:

    Information and Communication Technology has revolutionized agricultural extension by providing farmers with access to timely and relevant information, improving their productivity, and enabling them to make more informed decisions.

How ICT Improves Agricultural Extension:

·        Information Dissemination

·        Improved Communication and Collaboration

·        Real-time information

·        Enhanced productivity

·        Reduced costs

·        Empowerment of farmers

·        Access to services

Specific Examples of ICT Applications:

·        Mobile Apps

·        Web based platforms

·        Radio and television

·        Interactive Voice Response (IVR)

·        Geographic Information System (GIS)

·        Drones and Remote sensing

 Extension Programme Planning

Terminologies:

Programme: A written statement containing factual data for decision-making, prioritized problems, and potential solutions.

Plan or Plan of Work: An outline of activities designed for efficient program execution, addressing the “what, why, how, when,where, and by whom” of the work.

Project: A specific component of the annual plan, focused on solving a single selected problem.

Calendar of Work: A chronologically arranged plan of work, essentially a time schedule.

Aim: A broad, generalized statement of direction, often encompassing several objectives. It's the overall "end in view.”

Objective: A measurable direction of movement, a specific “goal of growth.”

Goal: The measurable distance or achievement proposed to be covered within a specific timeframe.

Extension Programme Planning:

Ø Dynamic and continuous process

ØDecision-making process

Ø Advance thinking

Ø It’s not a static event but an ongoing effort that accounts for changing needs and circumstances.

Ø Specific skills and abilities from planners

Ø The planning process is built around content, focusing on available technology, people’s needs, resources, and problems.

Ø Social action process

Planning Process Involves:

1. Reaching, Understanding regarding principles, procedures, roles and time schedules

2. Analysis situation

3. Determining programme objective

4. Selection problems

5. Finding solution

STEPS:

I. Planning Process

1. Reach understanding regarding principles, procedures, roles and time schedule.

2. Analyse situation.

3. Determine objectives.

4. Select problems with due regard to priorities.

5. Find solutions

II. Planned Programme

Prepare a written statement of:

                                                                   I. Situation

                                                                II. Objectives;

                                                              III. Problems; and

                                                              IV.  Solutions.

III. Plan of work

Prepare a plan of work containing information regarding:

                                                                   I. People to be reached;

                                                                II.Goals, dates and places;

                                                             III.Teaching procedures to be followed;

                                                            IV. Duties, training and recognition of leaders;

                                                               V. Roles to be played by extension personnel; and

                                                            VI.Roles to be played by other agencies.

IV. Execution of plan of work

                                                                   I.Make advance arrangement for inputs and teaching aids.

                                                                II. Interpret the approved programme to the staff and people’s representatives.

                                                             III.Carry out the planned programme, phase by phase, in a co-ordinated manner.

V. Evaluation of accomplishments

                                                                   I. Do concurrent evaluation.

                                                                II. Do ex-post facto evaluation.

Community Development:

Ø CDP- The main role in the implementation of the Grow more food Campaign was played.

Ø The basic idea and concept of community development was borrowed from USA.

Ø Launched: 2 October 1952

Ø In the initial phase of community development plan, 15 pilot projects were started in 1952 AD with the financial assistance of Ford Foundation.

 Agricultural Development Programmes:

KVK-Krishi Vigyan Kendra:

Ø It forms a part of National Agricultural Research System (NARS) aimed at assessment of location specific technology modules in agriculture and allied enterprises, through technology assessment, refinement & demonstration.

Ø It is launched by the Ministry of Agri and farmer’s welfare for the scientific solution of all problems related to crop production, management, and marketing.

Ø Total in India KVK: 731

Ø The KVK scheme is 100% financed by Govt. of India and the KVKs are sanctioned to Agricultural Universities, ICAR institutes, related Government Departments and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) working in Agriculture.

Ø KVK is also known as Farm science center.

Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)

Ø It is a registered society responsible for technology dissemination at the district level.

Ø It is a focal point for integrating research extension and marketing.

Ø FIAC, Farmer Information and Advisory Centre are setup in ATMA at Block Level

Ø FIAC consists of two bodies namely Farmer Advisory Committee (FAC) and Block Technology Team (BTT)

Ø Launch:  2005-06.

Ø Funding: 90% by the central Government and 10% by the state government.

Ø District Magistrate is appointed as the chairperson of the ATMA Governing Board.

Kisan Call Center

Ø Launch: January 21, 2004.

Ø  Aim: Answer farmers’ queries and providing solution on a telephone call in their own dialect.

Ø Toll Free number 1800-180-1551

Ø Replies to the farmers’ queries are given in 22 local languages.

Ø Kisan Call Centre agents known as Farm Tele Advisor (FTAs).

Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI)

Ø System of rural local self-government in India.

Ø Recommendation of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee

Ø 3 Tier Panchayati Raj System was given by Balwant Rai Mehta.

Ø 2 Tier Panchayati Raj System was proposed by Ashok Mehta Committee.

The committee suggested a three-tier PRIs, namely,

Ø Grama Panchayats (GPs) at the village level,

Ø Panchayat Samiti (PSs) at the block level,

Ø Zilla Parishad (ZPs) at the district level.

Ø National Panchayati Raj Day: 24 April

Ø B.R.Mehta is called the ‘architect of the Panchayati Raj system (Shilpi) of India’.

High Yielding Variety Programme

Ø Launch:1966-67 to attain self- sufficiency in food by 1970-71.

Ø To increase the productivity of food grains by adopting the latest varieties of inputs of crops.

Ø Combined with the application of high analysis and balanced fertilizer, irrigation, plant protection, Improved implements etc, which made a ‘Green Revolution’ possible in the country.

Etawah Pilot Project

Ø Started in 1948 by Mr. Albert Mayer of USA who came to India as a warrior at a village called Mahewa in UP.

Ø It is also called “Average district plan” became the project was initiated in the normal environment.

Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)

Ø Launch: 1979

Ø To provide rural youth (18-35 years) from families below the poverty line with training and technical skills enable them to take up self-employment.

Ø At least 1/3 of candidates should be women

Lab to Land Programme

Ø Launched by the ICAR in 1979 as a part of its Golden Jubilee celebration.

Ø To improve the economic condition of the small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers, particularly scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, by transfer of improved technology developed by the agricultural universities, research institutes etc.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)

Ø Launch: 2005.

Ø Ministry: Ministry of Rural development

Ø To guarantee 100 days of employment in every financial year.

Ø Legal status: Right to Work

Ø Eligible: Adult members of any household

Ø On 2nd October 2009, an amendment was made in the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005, to change the nomenclature of the Act NREGA to MGNREGA.

Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM)

Ø Ministry: Ministry of Rural development

Ø In 1999, Government of India, introduced Swarn Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) to promote self-employment in rural areas through formation and skilling of SHGs.

Ø  SGSY evolved as a national movement in June 2011 and became Aajeevika – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) – world’s largest poverty alleviation programme.

Ø NRLM was renamed as Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) in March 2016.

Ø The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme programme.

Ø The funding of the program is currently being shared between the Center and the States in the ratio of 60:40 (90:10 in the case of North-Eastern and Himalayan States including Sikkim).

Agri-clinics and agri-business centres scheme (ACABC)

Ø Launched on: April 2002

Ø First ACABC established at-Vapi, Bulsar (Distt), Gujarat by Sunil Kumar.

Ø National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) will be responsible for providing training to eligible candidates.

Ø Inclusion of MUDRA loan under Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY) for Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centres Scheme.

Transfer of Technology:

    Technology transfer in extension involves disseminating new technologies, knowledge, and innovations to the target audience (farmers, communities, etc.) to improve productivity and livelihoods.

Models of Technology Transfer:

1. Top-Down Model:

   Researchers and scientists develop technologies, and extension services then disseminate them to farmers without direct farmer involvement in the research process.

Weakness: May not be suitable for complex farming systems or for addressing the specific needs of farmers in different regions.

Example: The Training and Visit (T&V) system, where extension agents visit farmers with pre-determined technology packages.

2. Feedback Model:

   Extension services gather feedback from farmers on the new technologies, which can be used to refine research and development.

Weakness: The feedback loop can be weak if farmers remain passive recipients of the technology.

3. Farmer-Led/Participatory Models:

   Farmers are actively involved in identifying their needs, developing solutions, and testing new technologies.

Strengths: More likely to lead to adoption of technologies that are relevant and sustainable.

Examples: Farmer-First approach, Farmer Field Schools, and participatory research methods.

4. Market-Led Extension:

   Focuses on helping farmers understand market demands and consumer preferences to improve livelihoods.

Examples: Market intelligence, contract farming, and direct marketing.

Factors Influencing Successful Technology Transfer:

·      Strong research-extension linkages: Effective communication and collaboration between researchers and extension staff are crucial.

·     Capacity building: Ensuring that extension staff have the necessary knowledge, skills, and resources to effectively transfer technologies.

·       Community involvement: Engaging farmers and other stakeholders in the process of technology transfer.

·       Adaptation of technologies: Tailoring technologies to local conditions and specific needs.

·        Monitoring and evaluation: Tracking the adoption and impact of new technologies.

Entrepreneurship

·        French word "entrepredre"

·        French economist Richard Cantillon used the term entrepreneur to business.

Ø An entrepreneur is the agent who buys factors of production at certain prices in order to combine them into a product with a view to selling it at uncertain prices in future”.

Ø “Entrepreneurship” is the purposeful activity of an individual undertaken to initiate, maintain and aggrandize profit by production or distribution of economic goods and services”.

Types of Entrepreneurs:

Ø Clarence Danhof Classification: 1. Innovative, 2. Imitative/ Adoptive, 3. Fabian & 4. Drone.

Ø Arthur H. Cole Classification: 1. Empirical, 2. Rational & 3. Cognitive.

Ø On the basis of Ownership: 1. Private & 2. Public

Ø Based on the scale of Enterprise: 1. Small scale & 2. Large scale.

Ø Active partners: This type of entrepreneurs bold, and they never hesitate to plunge themselves into uncertainties for earning profit.

Ø Life timers: This type of entrepreneurs believes on their family enterprises which thrive due to high personal skill are included under this category.

Ø Agripreneurship: It is defined as generally sustainable, community oriented, directly marketed agriculture Directly focuses on the interrelationships of social, economic and environmental process

Ø Globalization means expansion of economic activities across national boundaries.

Adoption Process

Ø Adoption: Decision to make full use of an innovations as the best course of action available.

Ø Diffusion: Process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

Ø Innovation: Idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other of adoption.

The Adoption Process:

Ø Awareness stage: The individual learns of the existence of the new idea but lacks information about it.

Ø Interest stage: The individual develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional information about it.

Ø Evaluation stage: The individual makes mental application of the new idea to the present and anticipant future situations and decide whether or not to try it.

Ø Trial stage: The individual actually applies the new idea on a small scale in order to determine its utility own situation.

Ø Adoption stage: The individual uses the new idea continuously on a full scale.

Characteristics of Innovation:

Ø The relative advantage is how improved an innovation is over the previous generation.

Ø Compatibility is the second characteristic, the level of compatibility that an innovation has to be assimilated into an individual’s life.

Ø The complexity of an innovation is a significant factor in whether it is adopted by an individual. If the innovation is too difficult to use an individual may not adopt it.

Ø The fourth characteristic, trialability, determines how easily an innovation may be experimented with as it is being adopted.

Ø The final characteristic, observability, is the extent that the results of an innovation are visible.

Categories of Adopters: There are Five Categories of Adoption:

Ø Innovators: Such people adopt knowledge immediately after getting it, which are called innovators. The number of such people in India is only 2.5% of the total number.

Ø Early Adopters: Such people adopt through local leaders and their number is 13.5%.

Ø Early Majority: The adoption by such people is not done through the local leaders and these people adopt a little before the adoption of the general public. The number of such people is only 34%.

Ø  Late Majority: These people accept after seeing their relatives and relatives or neighbours and their number is only 34%.

Ø Laggards: Such people are the last to accept and their number is only 16%.

Personality Development

Public Speaking:

It is the process of communicating information to an audience. It is usually done Before a large audience like in school and workplace.

Points to be considered in making effective public speaking:

1.     Prepare the speech

2.     Research your audience

3.     Don’t read your speech

4.     Think beyond the words

5.     Practice makes perfect

6.     Avoid the PowerPoint death sentence.

7.     Personalize what you have to say

8.     Being nervous is good

9.     Hope for the best, prepare for the worst

10. Observe and learn from the expert

Group Discussion:

Ø Systematic and purposeful interactive oral process. Here the exchange of ideas, thoughts and feelings take place through oral communication

    There are four major areas of evaluation in selection GDs:

Ø Subject knowledge - The greater your knowledge of the subject, the more enthusiastic and confident you Will be during the discussion.

Ø Oral communication skills-Good communication skills include active listening, clarity of though and Expression, apt language and proper non-verbal clues.

Ø Listening skills-Listening is as important as speaking in a GD, unless You listen, you cannot contribute to the stated purpose of communication

Ø Team management

Indexing:

It refers to the organization of data according to a specific schema or plan.

Types of Indexing:

1. Digital Indexing: A way of finding documents on a computer system using software to file records and adding keywords.

2. Book Index/Page Index: A large bound volume or a section at the end of a book that helps readers locate important information.

3. Card Index: A system using strong quality cards of uniform size, filed in a cabinet in a specific order.

4. Strip Index: A rare form of indexing using small strips of card stock, attached on the left by binding string or metal rings.

5. Rotary Index: A classic style of indexing using a wheel to display numeric or alphabetic filing systems on cards.

Advantages of Indexing:

1. Speeds up Select queries: Helps retrieve data quickly.

2. Ensures uniqueness: Primary or unique indexes prevent duplicates.

3. Facilitates full-text search: Enables searching against large string values.

Disadvantages of Indexing:

1. Takes additional disk space: Indexes require extra storage.

2. Slows down Insert, Update, and Delete operations: Indexes need to be updated after each operation.

3. Impacts performance: Can slow down UPDATE operations if not properly optimized.

Precise Writing:

·Precis' is a french word 'Praecissus' which means cut off, to be brief and is connected with the English word 'Precis'.

 A precis is a summary or the list of the main ideas of written matter. Thus, precis writing means summarizing.

Skills Required:

1. Clarity: Clearly convey the main ideas and information.

2. Coherence: Present logical and interconnected ideas.

3. Correctness: Ensure accuracy and avoid mistakes.

4. Conciseness: Provide essential information without unnecessary detail.

5. Completeness: Include all important facts while being concise.

Procedure:

·        Start your précis with the main idea so that the reader can quickly understand

the essence of the précis.

·        One should know beforehand as to what should they expect in the written précis.

·        While writing a précis, make a suitable environment where all the points can be described and discussed equally.

·        As the main idea or the essence is established, you can follow it up with some methods, facts, points, etc.

·        Removing the irrelevant data or sentence is as important as writing the relevant points.

·        Identify the superfluous data and facts and keep the core idea of the work only in the précis.

·        Also, remember to put the purpose as to why you are writing a précis in the writing piece.

·        This will help the reader understand what you wrote in the précis.

Guidelines for Precise Writing:

1.   Decide theme of the passage.

2.   No reproduction of important sentences.

3.   Have brevity and clarity.

4. Reflects the intelligence of the précis-writer.

5.  Use own language.

6.  Avoid direct speech and use indirect speech.

7.   Inclusion of statistical information.

8.  Observe proportion.

9.   No comments but conclusion.

10.One third of the original passage.

Writing skills:

Types of writing:

1. Expository: Explains a concept or idea, providing information and facts without expressing personal opinions.

2. Descriptivel: Paints a picture in words, describing a person, place, or thing using sensory details and literary devices.

3. Persuasive: Aims to convince the audience of a particular position or belief, often using opinions, biases, and evidence.

4. Narrative: Tells a story, whether fiction or nonfiction, with characters, conflict, and settings.

Structure of writing:

                              INTRODUCTION---THESIS---RESTATEMENT---CONCLUSION

 Reading Skills:

        Ability of an individual to read, comprehend and interpret written words on a page of an article or any other reading material.

Types of Reading:

Ø Loud reading:

 Also known as oral or aloud reading. It should be introduced after the students have been given some training in two months on the points concerning pronunciation, intonation, stress, pitch and other aspects of spoken English.

Ø Silent reading:

     Best kind of reading as the mind is fully engaged in this act. It is a quick way of reading through a passage. It saves time and energy.

Ø Intensive reading:

      Detailed study of the prescribed text in order to train the students is an important aspect of language teaching.

Ø Extensive reading:

      Also known as rapid reading or independent reading. Read silently and quickly in order to understand the subject matter and derive the meaning as a whole without the help of the teacher and expand passive vocabulary.

Ø Supplementary reading:

     It is quite resembling intensive reading. It is carried out under the direct control and general supervision of the teacher. Extensive reading is the most important aspect of supplementary reading, as such it is also called subsidiary reading.

Readability Index:

The automated readability index (ARI) is a readability test for English texts,

designed to gauge the understandability of a text.

ARI = 4.71(characters /words) + (words/sentences) 21.43

S.No                                                  AGE                                              GRADE LEVEL

1                                                         5-6                                                   Kindergarden

2                                                         6-7                                              First/Second grade

3                                                         7-9                                                   Third grade

4                                                        9-10                                                  Fourth grade

5                                                       10-11                                                  Fifth grade

6                                                       11-12                                                 Sixth grade

7                                                       12-13                                               Seventh grade

8                                                       13-14                                                Eighth grade

9                                                       14-15                                                Ninth grade

10                                                     15-16                                                Tenth grade

11                                                     16-17                                               Eleventh grade

12                                                     17-18                                               Twelfth grade

13                                                     18-24                                             College student

14                                                        24+                                                   Professor

 Listening Skills:

               Hearing refers to one's ability to perceive sounds, by receiving vibrations through ears. Listening is something done consciously, that involve the analysis and understanding of the sounds you hear.

Types of listening:

Ø Sympathetic listening:

      In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this concern in the way we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness at their joys.

Ø Empathetic Listening:

1. Understands others' feelings deeply.

2. Requires close attention to emotional signals.

3. Involves feeling what others feel.

4. Encourages self-disclosure through sensitive questioning.

Ø Evaluative Listening:

1. Assesses truth and logic of statements.

2. Judges against personal values.

3. Analyzes arguments and discerns meaning.

4. It is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive listening

Ø Appreciative listening:

    In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for example that      which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when we are listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.

Ø Comprehension Listening:

1. Understands meaning of words and visual cues.

2. Requires knowledge of lexicon, grammar, and syntax.

3. Involves extracting key facts and understanding body language.

Ø Critical Listening:

   1. Evaluates and judges what is being said.

   2. Forms opinions and assesses strengths and weaknesses.

   3. Analyzes information in real-time, relating it to existing knowledge.

Ø Biased listening:

        It happens when the person hears only what they want to hear, typically misinterpreting what the other person says based on the stereotypes and other biases that they have. Such biased listening is often very evaluative in nature.

Presentation:

Individual presentation:

          In this presentation only one individual is the main and only working person. One person creates the presentation and then himself present it infront of group of listeners or audience. No group cooperation required here.

Planning a Presentation:

Step 1: Analyze Your Audience

·        Learn about the audience's backgrounds, values, and interests.

·        Understand their expectations from the presentation.

Step 2: Select a Topic

·        Choose a topic relevant to the audience and yourself.

·        Ensure the topic is interesting and engaging.

Step 3: Define the Objective

·        Write a concise statement specifying what you want the audience to learn.

·        Base the objective on the time available and audience's background knowledge.

Step 4: Prepare the Body

·        Determine the amount of information to present within the time limit.

·        Use knowledge about the audience to tailor the content.

·        Present ideas convincingly using:

·        Data and facts

·        Quotes from experts

·        Personal experiences

·        Vivid descriptions

·        Provide variety to keep the audience engaged.

Step 5: Prepare the Introduction and Conclusion

  Introduction:

·        Capture the audience's attention.

·        Build interest and relevance.

·        Clearly present the topic and purpose.

  Conclusion:

·        Summarize and reiterate main points.

·        Reinforce key ideas to help the audience remember.

Step 6: Practice Delivering the Presentation

·        Rehearse to fine-tune content and reduce filler words.

·        Decide on a delivery method:

·        Memorization & Using cards

·        Reading from a script

·        Combination of methods

Group Presentation:

In the the group of few persons are collaborate with each other and whole group make the presentation then divide this presentation to present it in front of other.

Stages:

1. Forming

·        Team members meet and introduce themselves.

·        Share backgrounds, interests, and experience.

·        Team leader provides clear direction and goals.

·        Team members establish roles and responsibilities.

2. Storming

·        Team members compete for status and acceptance.

·        Different opinions cause conflict.

·        Team leader facilitates and coaches team members.

·        Team learns to solve problems and work together.

3. Norming

·        Team members work more effectively together.

·        Respect each other's opinions and value differences.

·        Team establishes processes and procedures.

·        Team members trust each other and seek input.

4. Performing

·        Team functions at a high level.

·        Members are interdependent and motivated.

·        Team makes decisions and solves problems effectively.

·        Team leader monitors progress and celebrates milestones.

5. Adjourning

·        Project is coming to an end.

·        Team members move on to different directions.

·        Team leader ensures celebration of success and captures best practices.

·        Team members say good-bye and wish each other luck.